This monarch is traditionally identified as the Vikramaditya
who established the Vikram era, but because the Vikram era was established a
little less than sixty years before the common era, this claim is clearly
untenable.
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The Vikram era date is fifty-six or fifty-seven years later
than that of the com mon era; the discrepancy stems from the differing first
days of the year in the two systems.
In the common era the year begins on January 1, but in the
Vikram era the year begins with the sun’s transition into Aries, considered in
India as occurring on April 14.
Hence, to convert a Vikram era date to a common era date,
one subtracts fifty-six years for dates between January 1 and April 14, and
fifty-seven years for dates between April 15 and December 31.
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In both these earlier sources the story ends unhappily, with
the separation of Urvashi and Pururavas, but in Kalidasa’s version the
estranged lovers are finally happily reunited.
This change may have been prompted solely from the desire
for a happy ending, which is one of the most characteristic features of Sanskrit
drama.
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The richness of this mythic imagination can be seen in the
composition of the Hindu pantheon, in which hundreds of major and minor deities
have been given form, identity, and mythic history.
Yet aside from these deities, who have been given an
identifiable form, there are also a host of village deities found throughout
India.
In most cases, the village deity is exactly that—the deity
who protects, watches over, and acts as a divine over seer for a particular village
or locale.
One of their most common functions is to protect the village
from disease, either of people or livestock, and to provide remedies when
disease strikes.
They are also the guardians of the village, defending it
from ghosts and unseen powers, as well as protecting the villagers from danger
and misfortune.
The authority of these deities is generally quite limited—in
most cases, it does not extend beyond the village itself.
In most cases, village deities have no well defined mythic
history, form, or personality.
At times they will have a temple dedicated to them, but in
other cases the village deity is believed to be associated with a particular
tree or is represented by a post in the village square.
Village deities are usually nonvegetarian, demanding animal
sacrifices and offerings of blood in exchange for their services.
Relationships with these deities are highly pragmatic—the
villagers make offerings, and the deities protect, but beyond these offerings
there is usually little organized worship.
If these deities have any organized priesthood, it is almost
always non-brahmin because the impurity (ashaucha) generated by animal sacrifices
would be unacceptable to brahmins.
These priesthoods are intermediaries between the deity and
the villagers, usually communicating with the deities through dreams or
possession.
In this way the deities’ wishes become known, and problems
or concerns can find their solution.
In some cases, local deities have gained greater stature and
have been assimilated into the pantheon.
For female deities, this process is fairly simple, since
they can be brought into the pantheon by claiming that their temples are one of
the Shakti Pithas, a network of sites sacred to the Goddess that spreads
throughout the subcontinent.
Each Shakti Pitha marks the site where a body part of the
dismembered goddess Sati fell to earth, taking form there as a different
goddess; all these individual goddesses are thus seen as manifestations of a
single great Goddess.
Male deities are more typically incorporated into the pantheon
as incarnations of the deity Vishnu, and three major instances of the former
are Jagannath, Vithoba, and Venkateshvara.
Village deities are less usually considered to be avatars of
the god Shiva, although this has occurred with Khandoba, an important regional
deity in the state of Maharashtra.
See also pitha.
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Vijayanagar ("Victory City") is the last of the
ancient Hindu kingdoms in southern India, named for its capital city near
modern-day Hampi in Karnataka.
Throughout its history, the kingdom saw phases of growth and
decline.
It ruled most of southern India in the early fifteenth
century, but then declined and lost territory; this was followed by a period of
renewal in the early sixteenth century, during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya,
and finally ended after the battle of Talikota in 1565, when the ruling prince
Rama Raja was decisively defeated by a coalition of sultans from the northern
Deccan.
The city of Vijayanagar was abandoned almost immediately,
but it still retains outstanding specimens of late medieval Hindu art and
architecture, despite the ravages of time.
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This specific piece of criticism was crucial to the British
administration of India.
The British were mostly content to have traditional
religious laws govern their Indian subjects, but they needed a standard to do
so.
Bengal, where the Dayabhaga was the legal authority, was the
only major part of India where Hindus were not subject to this.
One of the major differences between the two was in matters
of inheritance.
The Mitakshara stresses inheritance by survivorship, in
which only living males can inherit property, whereas the Dayabhaga stresses
inheritance by succession, in which a dead man’s heirs can inherit in his name.
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Individual cells in the little rooms and a shared area in the
vast middle space—this was originally a Buddhist architectural design meant to
provide a living place for the monks.
The pattern was included into the oldest Hindu temples, such
as those in Aihole.
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Vijayadashami marks the culmination of Durga Puja in India's southern, eastern, northeastern, and some northern areas, commemorating goddess Durga's triumph over the buffalo monster Mahishasura to restore and defend dharma.
Lord Rama traveled to Ravana's realm with his brother Larkshman and devotee Hanuman to battle him and bring back Sita, Rama's wife.
The holiday of Dussehra, which
occurs on the tenth day of the lunar month, is known by another name.
The event commemorates Lord Ram's triumph over Lankan ruler Ravana (the 10-headed demon).
The festival has two mythological charters, one with the god
Rama and the other with the Goddess, and both myths lead to this day as the day
when the deity achieves ultimate triumph.
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This is the eleventh-day observance devoted to the worship
of Vishnu, as is the case with all eleventh-day observances.
Most Hindu holidays have pre-determined ceremonies, which
generally include fasting (upavasa) and devotion, and frequently offer
particular rewards for loyal participation.
Those taking this vow should fill an earthen pot with the
seven varieties of grain, place an image of Vishnu on top of the pot, and
recite the names of Vishnu for twenty-four hours.
The pot of grain should be handed to a brahmin on the
twelfth.
In terms of outcomes, it is stated that diligently honoring
this festival would provide vijaya (victory) over poverty and sadness.
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Vighneshvar translates to "Lord of Obstacles" in Sanskrit.
It is Lord Ganesh's epithet, implying that he has power over all barriers and so may make things simple or difficult for a person.
Look up Ganesh.
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These are semidivine creatures who are Earthly rather than celestial.
The Vidyadharas are said to reside in the Himalayas, and are
so often connected with the deity Shiva, whose residence is also considered to
be there.
Vidyadharas are typically kind to people and are commonly
linked with providing knowledge to those they care about (as their name says).
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Despite the fact that Vidyapati wrote in Sanskrit, he is
best known for his love poetry, which was written in the Maithali dialect.
He drew on Sanskrit love poetry's literary traditions in
this poetry, but his favorite subjects were the divine lovers Radha and
Krishna.
Although later Vaishnavas regarded Vidyapati's love poetry
as devotional, Vidyapati's religious writings define Shiva as the Supreme
Being, demonstrating that he was a Shaiva.
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Although individuals in contemporary India may not follow
the specified form of this process (which involves making offerings to a
sacrificial fire and giving presents to brahmins), families that value
education have a ritualized start to study, frequently when the child is as young
as three years old.
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As shown there, vidhi is an impersonal force that controls
and constrains both gods and humans; this view corresponds well to the concept
of destiny.
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When a succession of events happens in a cause-and-effect
relationship, with any one of them acting as both cause and effect, a vicious
loop is formed.
When "a" causes "b," and "b"
causes "c," "x" causes "a" (somewhere down the
line).
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King Vichitravirya's wives are Ambika and her sister Ambalika, who died without heirs.
Satyavati, Vichitravirya's mother, asks her son, Vyasa, to sleep with his brother's two wives in a desperate effort to preserve the lineage.
Ambika is so horrified by Vyasa's looks that she sends her serving maid instead when she is urged to sleep with him again.
In contrast to the two sisters, Ambika's maid happily serves Vyasa and receives a gorgeous son called Vidura as a result.
Satyavati only asks her oldest son, Vyasa, to sleep with the two
women in order to continue King Shantanu's lineage.
Vyasa sires Pandu and Dhrtarashtra from this marriage, and
their descendants become the principal fighting factions in the Mahabharata,
the second of the two great Sanskrit epics.
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Vibhishana, Ravana, and their third brother, Kumbhakarna,
practiced extreme physical asceticism (tapas) in their youth in order to win
boons from the gods.
Unlike his brothers, who have chosen boons to improve their
military skill and fame, Vibhishana requests that he stay virtuous in the face
of peril, and this trait defines his life.
When Ravana gathers a council of war before fighting Rama's
army, Vibhishana is the only one who votes against fighting and instead
recommends Ravana to restore Rama's stolen wife, Sita, and seek Rama's
forgiveness.
Ravana expels his brother from the city as a result of these
comments, and Vibhishana joins Rama's army, where he battles courageously
throughout the conflict.
In Indian mythology, demons (in this instance, the sort of
demons known as rakshasas) are not intrinsically wicked, as Vibhishana
exemplifies.
They are formidable creatures who may battle gods and
mankind, yet they also possess many qualities.
Vibhishana is shown as a great devotee (bhakta) of Rama in
the Ramcharitmanas, a vernacular retelling of the Ramayana authored by the poet-saint
Tulsidas (1532–1623? ), in line with Tulsidas' emphasis on devotion above all
other types of religious activity.
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The three lines are said to represent the three prongs of
Shiva's trident in one interpretation, and Shiva's third eye in another.
On the one hand, he is said to smear ashes from the cremation ground all over his body, indicating his disregard for all conventional distinctions between purity and impurity (ashaucha); the ash could also represent Shiva's destruction of Kama, the god of love, who is reduced to ash by Shiva's third eye.
This is still done today, especially by ascetics who utilize
the ash from a dhuni, or smoldering ascetic fire, which is considered to give
the ash a holy nature; in contemporary times, vibhuti is sold in religious
supply shops.
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Whereas the Nagara style was defined by vertical uplift
achieved by temple towers (shikharas), and the Dravida style by lower temples
covering vast swaths of land, the Veshara style's most distinguishing feature
is a barrel roof above the sanctuary, which has its origins in the Buddhists'
rock-cut caves (chaityas).
This roof lies in the middle of the Nagara towers and the
Dravida horizontal tiers, much as the Deccan was in the middle of the two.
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Vetalas are known to devour human flesh and are supposed to
frequent battlefields in order to get their fill.
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Friday is presided over by Venus, whose good qualities make
it a lucky day.
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It is the signature instrument of the deity Krishna in Hindumythology, who utilized its lovely tones to call his followers (bhakta) to him
and spend their evenings dancing on the Yamuna River's banks.
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Following Vena's death, the issue of royal succession
emerges.
The sages first churn a little, deformed, dark-skinned man
called Nishada from his thigh, who is said to be the progenitor of the Nishada
tribe.
Nishada takes all of Vena's many faults onto himself,
purifying Vena of them.
Following Vena's cleansing, the sages churn his right hand,
revealing a dazzling and sparkling youngster named King Prthu.
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The temple is located north and east of Madras.
The temple is located in the Tirumalai hills, which are made
up of seven hills that are said to resemble the seven cobra hoods of Shesha,
the fabled snake that acts as Vishnu's couch.
Venkateshvara's picture is unique in that he has a plate
covering his forehead.
The Tengalais and Vadagalais, two branches of the
Shrivaishnava society, each wear specific sectarian insignia on their images,
and this plate hides these markings on the picture, allowing both groups to
claim him as their own.
People go from all across the nation to Tirupati, partly
because it is widely believed that any request expressed in the presence of the
deity would be fulfilled unfailingly.
Aside from large monetary gifts, it is usual for pilgrims to
have their heads shaved as a token of their presence and to give a hair
donation.
Since independence, the temple's riches has been managed by
a trust, which has paid special attention to publishing, educational
institutions, and assisting in the construction of Hindu temples outside of
India.
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The Vellala community was the source for many of the Alvars,
a group of twelve poet-saints whose stress on passionate devotion (bhakti) to
the god Vishnu transformed and revitalized Hindu religious life.
Most of the Alvars’ influence undoubtedly stemmed from the
strength of their religious devotion, but this was undoubtedly reinforced by
Vellala status as a land holding community.
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The Ghrneshvar linga is one of the twelve jyotirlingas, a
network of sites deemed especially sacred to Shiva and at which Shiva is
uniquely present.
Shiva is pre sent at this temple in the form of a linga, the
pillar-shaped image that is his symbolic form, and the Ghrneshvar linga is one
of the twelve jyotirlingas, a network of sites deemed especially sacred to
Shiva.
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The society’s tone has been nontheistic, nonritual, and rationalist;
its constituency has been drawn from liberals and intellectuals, such as the
writer Aldous Huxley.
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The text itself is a collection of 555 brief aphorisms
(sutras), which are so terse that they presuppose a commentary.
The sutras focus particularly on the ideas about Brahman,
hence their other common name, the Brahma Sutra.
In content, the first section describes the nature of
Absolute Reality, the second responds to objections and criticizes other
positions, the third details the means to acquire knowledge, and the fourth
describes the benefits of such knowledge.
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Strict vegetarians eat no flesh or eggs, but milk and milk products are always eaten and are considered pure and health-giving, probably because they come from the cow.
Those people who keep the strictest diets will also often
refrain from onions and garlic, which are considered to excite the passions.
This religious commitment to vegetarianism by a certain part
of the population, and the general status given to “pure” vegetarian food, are
both responsible for the great variety of vegetarian cooking found in Indian
culture.
Despite the higher status given to a vegetarian diet, most
modern Hindus are not vegetarian—a recent poll of urban Hindus found that only
about 25 per cent were pure vegetarian, although the number may be higher in
villages, which tend to be more traditional.
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In this ceremony, a newly initiated brahmacharin—a young man
who had entered the celibate student phase of life—would commence to study the
Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious texts.
This rite is not mentioned in the earliest texts in the
dharma literature, perhaps under the assumption that Veda study would commence
at an appropriate time, after learning had commenced with the earlier
vidyarambha samskara.
After the "Upanayana," an auspicious day is set to do this "samskara." It may also be done on the day of the "Upanayana."
If it is not conducted on the same day, it is performed the following day, or it may be done on any auspicious day before the end of the "Upanayana" year.
The performer first bathes the youngster with pure, clean water.
Following that, the eight mantras are used to conduct God's devotion, prayer, and meditation.
"Acharya, the illustrious Acharya! Please help me become well-known in the world of education.
Acharya, I salute you!
You have a lot of clout and are well-versed in a lot of things. Acharya, I salute you!
You, as one of the wise men, are the keeper of the wealth of knowledge, Yajna, and so on.
So I became a man among men, the keeper of the Vedic knowledge and speech wealth "..
The youngster next sprinkles water over the 'Yajnakunda' after making a circle around it while repeating the four specified mantras.
Now the youngster must stand on the south side of the 'Yajnakunda,' with his back to the north.
"I've brought wood for igniting the Yajna fire, which is powerful in nature and found in all of the world's created objects.
As this wood-fueled fire blazer shines with long life, intelligence, vigour offspring, animals, and Vedic and Brahma knowledge.
May my Acharya have a long and happy life, and may I be blessed with great intellectual strength.
I promise not to act arrogant in front of anybody. I may be well-known, active, and endowed with heavenly qualities "..
In the same way, the youngster must throw the second and third wood sticks into the fire.
By singing the proper mantras, the fire of the 'Vedi' has now collected, and water is sprayed on all four sides of the 'Vedi.'
"This fire is the preserver of body, let it preserve my body, this fire is the giver of life, let it grant me long life, this fire is the giver of brilliancy, whatever has exhausted in my body, let this fire recuperate, may the creator of the universe grant me wisdom, let the all-flourishing knowledge give us wisdom, let the teacher and presiding officer grant us wisdom, let the teacher and presiding deity grant us wisdom."
Now, according to Vedarambha ritual, the kid pronounes the following mantras while touching the various organs listed in each mantra:
1. "Oh, my God! May my speech organ be healthy and well-developed.
2. Oh, my God! May my vision be clear and well-developed.
3. May my hearing grow properly, O God.
4. Oh, my God! May my arms, which have brought me renown and power, mature properly.
"May Agni, the self-renewing God, bestow knowledge, progeny, and power onto me. May Indra, the Almighty God, give knowledge, progeny, and biological strength upon me, and may Surya, the all-powerful God, bestow wisdom, progeny, and brilliance upon me; may I be effulgent with the effulgence Thou hast in three, my Lord! May I wield the power that Thou hast in three, my Lord! May the strength with which Thou hast equipped me, my Lord, make me an irresistible force!"
The youngster then moves to the north side of the 'Yajnakunda' and sits on the ground with his knees supported while facing east.
The 'Acharya' sits in front of the kid with his back to the west.
The youngster now adds, "O Acharya, teach me the Gayatri Mantra, which has as its theme savitar, the sun. Please instruct me in this area."
Vedarambha continues the 'Acharya' by placing a piece of cloth on the kid's shoulder and then holding the child's fingers in his own while repeating the 'Gayatri' Mantra in three parts to the infant.
The next phase in Vedarambha is for the kid and the 'Acharya' to swear a vow, similar to what is done in "Upanayana" with the singing of a set mantra.
This should be accomplished by saying this mantra
"This is the girdle, which is as holy and delightful as the sister. Devi is the hymn and symbol of virginity and purity. This has come into my hands, obstructing evil in thought and deed, safeguarding the integrity of the Varna system, and providing strength for our breathing and exhaling breath."
After that, the 'Acharya' gives the youngster two fresh clean clothing and instructs him to wear one while repeating the specified mantra. With a stick in his hand, the 'Acharya' now steps up in front of the youngster. While reciting this mantra, the youngster receives the stick from the 'Acharya's hand with folded hand "This stick that has come into my possession is built on the earth and stands straight in space. I embrace it once again, particularly for the sake of long life, Vedic knowledge, and continence discipline and strength."
"You've realized that you've been celibate since today.
You will always drink clean, pure water before each meal and say your prayers on a regular basis. Always avoid harmful deeds and engage in pious and noble deeds.
You will never sleep throughout the day.
You will always preserve in studying the Vedas with their limbs and sub-limbs if you remain under the supervision and control of your 'Acharya.'
Unless you finish the study of the four Vedas with limbs and sub-limbs, you will live a celibate life for 48 years in proportion to 12 years for each of the four Vedas, without failing.
You will always follow the laws of 'Dharma' under the guidance of your 'Acharya,' and you will always follow your 'Acharya's advise if he teaches you anything of 'Adharma' and wants you to behave in accordance with it.
You will refrain from becoming angry or lying.
You will always keep yourself away from the eight types of passionate activities.
You will only be able to sleep on the ground.
Never engage in the practice of 'kaushilava,' which includes poor singing, playing musical instruments, dancing, and other heinous behaviors, as well as the use of perfumes.
You will avoid excessive bathing, eating, sleeping, and waking, as well as reproach, over indulgence, dread, and sadness.
You will always do necessary acts such as clearing bowls, brushing your teeth with 'Dantadhanvana,' washing your mouth, bathing twice a day, two times meditations, eulogium, prayer and communion with God, and the practice of Yogic systems. Never consume dry meat or coarse grains, and never drink intoxicating beverages."
The father continues,
"You will never live in a village (save at Gurukula), and you will never wear shoes or an umbrella unless it is to dispose of pee.
Never touch the urinary organ to prevent the release of sperm and the restraining of sperm in the body.
Always strive to become a guy whose sperm is never expelled and has thus become a source of information by adopting mental trends and doing your task with such attention.
Do not use mustard-plaster for body attractiveness, and avoid eating foods that are highly sour, such as tamarind.
Do your daily meals and other interactions with great care and thought, and be engaged in information acquisition.
You will always have a decent character, be modest in your speech, and maintain excellent manners and seated etiquette in meetings and gatherings.
These are your everyday actions, and you should refrain from doing anything that has been banned."
"I would without a doubt behave according to anything you have taught to me," the youngster now salutes his father and says to him with folded hands."
The alms collected from them are gathered and given to the 'Acharya' by the youngster.
The 'Acharya' takes part of the grain and gives the balance of the alms to the celibate, who keeps it safe for his own meals.
The youngster then sits and sings the 'Vamdevya' song as instructed in the 'Samanya Prakarana'.
The youngster now consumes the alms that had been saved for him.
The 'Acharya' and the Brahmin then sit on the west side of the 'Yajnakunda,' with their backs to the east.
Then they make 'SthaliPaka,' as instructed in 'Samanya Prakarana,' and smear it with ghee before storing it.
They offer the four oblations of 'Agharavajyabhagahutis' and four oblations of 'Vyahriti Ahutis' while keeping the 'Kunda' fire blazing.
The youngster then gets up and warms his hand-palms on the 'Yajnakunda' fire before touching his limbs and lips in accordance with the 'Vedarambha Samskara' ritual.
The youngster then gives the cooked rice to the 'Acharya,' who will make oblations and consume it.
"May I come to know God, the self-effulgent master of knowledge, marvelous, dear to everything that the human spirit desires, as well as discriminate wisdom.
Whatever has been said here is correct.
The oblations presented are for the sake of fulfilling 'Sadasaspati's order, not for me. I am imbued with the admirable attributes and light of the all-creating, all-powerful God.
May he guide our thoughts and actions in the direction of positive traits. Everything that has been said so far is correct.
The oblation being given is for Savitar, not for me. The attributes of seers who study Veda and see are described."
Following that, the four 'Vyahriti Ahutis' oblations and eight 'Ajyahutis' oblations are offered.
The youngster then sits with his back to the east, facing 'Acharya.'
"I born in the genealogy of such and so thank you, O my instructor," the youngster says, saluting him".
The 'Acharya' then responds,
"Oh, my devoted pupil! May you live a long life and be remembered for your wisdom."
The meal is then served to the invited guests.
Before departing, the people bless the kid.
The infant must sleep on the ground for the following three days after the Vedarambha rite.
The method of three'samidha' with the specified mantra and the 'Angasparsha' procedure are conducted by the 'Acharya.'
He also asks the youngster to sing the mantras while performing the four oblations.
For three days, the youngster eats only salt-free meals.
The kid must next go to the 'Pathshala,' where he or she must complete the commitment and vows of the period of schooling.
Every day, he practices the 'Sandhayapasana' and continues his studies there till it is completed.
The instructor is awarded a 'Purnapatra' at the conclusion of Vedarambha, while the officiating Brahmana is given 'dakshina.'
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