Hinduism - What Is Vivartavada In Hindu Philosophy?

 

What is the Hindu philosophy of Vivartavada?

The world is described as an illusory transformation of the Ultimate Reality or Realities, according to this philosophical model.

The Advaita Vedanta philosophical school is known for its vivartavada model.

The Advaitins believe in a causal model known as satkaryavada, which assumes that effects already exist in their causes and that when they appear, they are simply transformations (parinama) of those causes.

Milk is transformed into curds, butter, and clarified butter as a classic example.

Each of these effects was already present in the cause, according to proponents of asatkarya, and emerges from it through a natural transformation of the cause.

The Advaita school adheres to the philosophical position of monism, which holds that everything is merely different manifestations of a single Ultimate Reality.

Despite the appearance of difference and diversity in the world, Advaita proponents claim that reality is nondual (advaita), that is, that all things are "actually" nothing but the formless, unqualified Brahman.

The Advaitins' belief that an effect already exists in its cause is based on the principle that all things in the universe ultimately rely on Brahman as the first cause.

Simultaneously, the Advaitins refuse to acknowledge that Brahman ever changes because this would negate its eternal and unchanging nature.

As a result, they talk about a fictitious transmission (vivartavada).

The Advaitins believe that Brahman never truly changes because it is eternal and thus unchanging; the apparent changes are only illusory, based on human ignorance through shifting superimposition patterns (adhyasa).

Advaitins are able to maintain Brahman's transcendence while also accounting for (apparent) changes in the phenomenal world in this way.

Proponents of a different approach, which portrays the perceivable world as an actual trans creation of this unified reality, argue against this stance.

Proponents of the Samkhya, Vishishthadvaita Vedanta, and Bhedabhada philosophical traditions, who, like Advaitins, believe in satkaryavada, hold this position.

Each of these three schools thinks that the world as we see it is real, that it is rooted in a single ultimate source, and that this fundamental principle undergoes a genuine metamorphosis through which the universe is born.

This parinama connection permits these schools to explain the phenomenal world, but in a manner that undermines the transcendence of these initial principles by incorporating them within it.

Philosophically, they struggle to explain how the sublime might become commonplace, then transcendent again.

What is the vivartavada view of Advaita Vedanta?

According to the post-Shankara Advaita advaitins' vivartavada view of Advaita Vedanta, the cosmos is only a "illusory mutation" of Brahman.

What does Vivarta mean?

The Sanskrit term vivarta denotes a change in form, a modification, or a changed circumstance. 

The word vivarta is the root of the phrase vivartavada.

The Satkaryavada thesis, which states that the cause precedes the consequence, is accepted by all Vedanta schools. 

However, there are several points of view about how Brahman gave rise to the material universe. 

The concept of parinamavada holds that the universe is a genuine (parinama) metamorphosis of Brahman. 

• The concept of vivartavada holds that the universe is only a fictitious (vivarta) representation of Brahman. 

• According to Vivartavada, despite the fact that Brahman seems to alter, nothing really changes. 

• The multitude of creatures are false manifestations because Brahman, the ultimate truth that is unborn, unchanging, and utterly devoid of any parts, is the only true being.

The Brahma Sutras, early Vedantins, the majority of Vedanta schools, and Samkhya all support parinamavada. 

According to Nicholson, the Advaitins, who are devotees of Shankara, are the "most conspicuous champions of Vivartavada." 

The Advaitins say that before the individual ego may be freed, all of Brahman's consequences must eventually be accepted as unreal, despite the fact that the universe can be represented as conventionally real, continues Nicholson.

However, academics are divided on whether Adi Shankara and his Advaita theory used vivartavada or parinamavada to explain causation. 

Adi Shankara did not support Vivartavada, according to scholars like Paul Hacker and Hajime Nakamura, and his justifications are "far from any connotation of illusion." They claim that the concept of Vivarta was given by the scholar Prakasatman, and it is Prakasatman's thesis that is sometimes mistaken for Adi Shankara's perspective. 

According to Andrew Nicholson, who agrees with Hacker and other academics, Shankara's thoughts are more closely related to parinama-vada than the vivarta-vada, and the vivarta explanation most likely developed gradually in the Advaita sub-school later.

Casual connection is depicted by Vijnanabhiksu as having three terms: effect, variable locus cause, and immutable locus cause. 

The locus cause cannot be separated from the changing cause and effect and does not originate in them.

By proposing the theory of Svatantryavada (the "Universal voluntarism"), which maintains that Effect develops from Cause due to the sovereignty of God's Will, the Pratyabhijna philosophy of Somananda disproves the Arambhvada (the "Realistic view" of the Nyaya-Vaisesika), the Parinamavada (the theory of Transformation of the Sankhya-Yoga), and the Vivart.

Ramanuja recognizes Prakrti as the material cause, but Madhava disputes this claim since a material cause does not necessarily imply control or supervision. 

Madhava also disagrees with the Vivartavada because it does not acknowledge the need to account for any effects. 

In his pure non-dualism (Shuddhadvaita) philosophy, Vallabhacharya also opposes "vivartavada" and asserts that Maya (or the "Jagat") is real and is only a power of Brahman who manifests as Jiva and the world of his own volition. 

In doing so, there is no transformation of Brahman; it still remains only gold. 

As a result, Shuddhadvaita is also called as "Avikta Parimavda" (Unmodified transformation).

Frequently Asked Questions

What does Vivartavada mean?

The concept of vivartavada holds that the universe is only a fictitious representation of Brahman. 

According to Vivartavada, despite the fact that Brahman seems to alter, nothing really changes. The multitude of creatures are false manifestations because Brahman, the ultimate truth that is unborn, unchanging, and utterly devoid of any parts, is the only true being.

What distinguishes Parinamavada from Vivartavada?

The non-advaitin doctrine of real change is referred to as parinama-vada.

Vivartavada, the advaita theory of seeming change, is distinct from this. The idea is that the cause really changes into the consequence.

References And Further Reading:

• Majumder, B. and Ray, S., 2022. Rajju Sarpa Bhranti-A Metaphysical Analysis of Visual Illusions in Light of Doctrine of Vivarta Vada. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences, 7(5), pp.80-90.

• Sayanolibavan, M., 2022. The importance attributed to Mandukya Karika in the tradition of Advaida Vedanta.

• Roodurmum, P.S., 2002. Bhåamatåi and Vivaraòna Schools of Advaita Vedåanta a Critical Approach.

• Chari, S., 2011. Indian Philosophical Systems: A Critical Review Based on Vedānta Deśika's Paramata-Bhaṅga.

• Majumder, B. and Ray, S., 2022. Doctrines of Different Philosophical Schools Regarding the Theory of Cause & Effect and Their Validation in Light of Charaka Samhita. Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine, 8(2), pp.94-100.

• Bhattacharyya, S.P., 2000. Sarvajñātmamuni's contribution to Advaita Vedānta.

• Brooks, R.W., 1963. Śaṁkara: A Psychological Study.

• Isaeva, N.V., 2009. Vivartavada.

• Duquette, J., 2015. Is Sivadvaita Vedanta a Saiddhantika School? Parinamavada in the Brahmamimarrisabhasya. Journal of Hindu Studies, 8(1), pp.16-43.

• Chaliha, A., 2017. ON SRIBHASYA-THE BASIC BOOK ON THE THEISTIC VEDANTA. The Philosophical Journal of JB College (Autonomous), Jorhat Assam, India, p.10.

• Goswami, N., The concept of aventa philosophy of Sankaracharya.

• Singh, P., 2021. The Problem of Causation: Nagarjuna Vs Hume. Journal Of International Buddhist Studies College (JIBSC), 7(1), pp.66-75.

• Gupta, A.S., 1958. Ramanuja on causality. Philosophy East and West, 8(3/4), pp.137-148.

~Kiran Atma

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Hinduism - Who Was Sureshvara In Hindu Philosophy?

 

 

Advaita Vedanta philosopher, one of two documented pupils of Shankaracharya (788–820? ), the other being Padmapada.

The Advaita school believes in monism, which is the concept that there is a single Ultimate Reality that lies underlying all things, and that all things are only different expressions of that reality.

Advaita proponents exhibit this idea by claiming that reality is nondual (advaita), that is, that all things are nothing but the formless, unqualified Brahman, despite the appearance of diversity and variety.

The idea that the universe is actual as seen is a basic misunderstanding of the ultimate essence of things, according to Advaita proponents, and an evidence of avidya.

Although typically interpreted as "ignorance," avidya refers to a lack of genuine insight that leads to karmic bonds, rebirth (samsara), and pain.

Sureshvara is the sole explicit proponent of jump philosophy in Hindu thinking, however aspects of it may be seen in other Advaita Vedanta thinkers, notably in his instructor.

The leap philosophy asserts that complete freedom from bondage, which is defined in the Indian context as the end of rebirth and full release of the soul (moksha), may be attained, but that such freedom cannot be attained by a perfectly determined sequence of causes and consequences.

Since the ultimate issue arises from one's erroneous understanding, the only solution, according to Sureshvara, is pure, accurate knowledge.

Sureshvara's approach, such as it is, is to utilize a negative dialectic to clearly define what the Self is not, and then to obtain a flash of mystic insight by hearing one of the mahavakyas ("great utterances") that connect the Self with Brahman once one's mind has been pre pared.

Sureshvara asserts that actions have no place in this process since action is inextricably linked to the world and is tainted by ignorance.

For further detail, see A. J. Alston's translation of Sri Suresvara's Naiskarmya Siddhi, published in 1959, and Karl H. Potter's ed. of Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils, published in 1981.

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Hinduism And Hindu Theology - What Is Advaita Vedanta?

Advaita Vedanta is a school of thought. One of the divisions of Vedanta, the philosophical school that claims to have discovered the ultimate (anta) message of the Vedas, the ancient holy scriptures. 

• The Advaita school adheres to the philosophical stance of monism, which argues that everything is governed by a single Ultimate Reality. 

• Advaita adherents believe that reality is nondual (advaita), meaning that everything in the universe, despite appearances of variety and diversity, is really the formless, unqualified Brahman. 

• To back up this assertion, the Advaitins provide a compelling explanation for why one sees the universe to be made up of many different and distinct entities. 

• Advaitans explain this seeming variety with the notion of adhyasa (superimposition), in which a false, erroneous knowledge is projected onto a genuine object—for example, seeing a rope in the twilight and mistaking it for a snake in the traditional Advaita example. 

• The Advaitins believe that the "snake" is not entirely unreal since it is dependent on the rope for its existence—the snake cannot be seen unless the rope is there. 

• At the same time, the "snake" is obviously not real, since one does not continue in this mistake, and once the snake's illusion is broken, one can no longer see it. 

• Similarly, Advaitins believe that our perception of the phenomenal daily world is projected onto the one really actual object in the universe—Brahman. 

• The universe, like the serpent, is unreal as it is seen yet real as it is dependent on Brahman. 

• The origins of adhyasa, according to Advaitins, are epistemological, that is, linked to how humans come to know things, while adhyasa's outcomes are both epistemological and ontological (related to how things actually are). 

On the one hand, adhyasa obscures the Ultimate Reality and makes it difficult to see it correctly, while on the other hand, its projective nature shapes our perceptions of the universe. 

• The cause of all this perplexity, according to Advaitins, is avidya, or primordial ignorance, under the influence of which one develops false beliefs about the universe. 

• Although it is stated that the operation of ignorance has no beginning, one of the factors that keeps it running is one's karma, which is based on the ongoing acts produced by this erroneous thinking. 

• The power of illusion (maya) possessed by God (Ishvara), which perplexes humans, is another cause of ignorance. 

God is identified as a qualified (saguna) form of Brahman, hence below the ultimate unqualified (nirguna) Brahman, and himself a result of superimposition, according to Advaita Vedantins. 

• Because the Advaita school thinks that incorrect thinking is the root of karma bonding, the only way to break free is to acquire the right knowledge. 

• Although the Advaitans believe that individuals are obligated to do religious acts (nitya karma) as a matter of duty, actions can never bring about the insight that is required for salvation, though they may help by eliminating karmic barriers. 

• The Advaitins begin their study by appealing to the knowing subject as the one thing that can never be questioned, claiming that this self-consciousness is proof of the presence of the inner Self, or atman. 

Apart from this appeal to experience, they rely heavily on the sacred texts' authority, particularly the Upanishads, to uphold their key doctrines: 

1. That Brahman is the source of all things; 
2. That the human soul is ultimately identical to Brahman, albeit hampered by obstacles based on past karma; and that true knowledge is the basis of liberation. 

The philosopher Shankaracharya was the first and greatest Advaita thinker; other notable individuals were his two students, Sureshvara and Padmapada, as well as Mandana Mishra and Vachaspati Mishra. Karl H. Potter (ed. ), Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils, 1981; and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore (eds. ), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, 1957, for further details.

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Hinduism - What Is The Concept Of Jivanmukti In Hindu Philosophy?

 

 ("freedom in the act of living") The idea that one may achieve ultimate soul liberation while still alive and then dwell in a liberated condition for the rest of one's life in later Indian philosophy.

Many of the subschools of Advaita Vedanta, one of the six schools of traditional Indian philosophy, make the claim of jivanmukta (one who is freed while still alive).

The Advaita school adheres to a philosophical viewpoint known as monism, which believes that all things are essentially different manifestations of a single Ultimate Reality known as Brahman.

The difficulty with human bonding, according to Advaita proponents, is that humans, blinded by avidya or misunderstanding, fail to comprehend this ultimate connection.

Liberation is achieved by comprehending what has always been the case, and therefore swapping a faulty idea for a true one, rather than by "doing" anything or becoming someone one is not.

Although this understanding permanently alters how a person perceives the universe, it has no ontological implications, implying that on a physical level, one continues to exist as before until the karma that generated one's current body has been spent.

For further detail, read Karl H. Potter's Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils, Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils, 1981.

 

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HINDU PHILOSOPHY AND YOGA

Hinduism - A Philosophy, Religion, Way Of Life, And Identity

The difference between philosophy and religion in Hinduism is not as obvious as it is in modern Western culture. 

• The terms "philosophy" and "religion" have no clear counterparts in Sanskrit, Hinduism's holy language. 

• Anvikshiki-vidya is the closest synonym for "philosophy" ("science of examination"). 

• Only the Nyaya school of philosophy, which deals with logic and dialectics, uses the similar word tarka-shastra ("discipline of reasoning"). 

• To describe what we understand by "philosophical inquiry," modern pundits use the phrase tattva-vidya-shastra ("discipline of knowing reality"). 

Sanatana-dharma The Sanskrit word dharma, which meaning "jaw" or "standard," captures the idea of "religion" (with many other connotations). 

• Sanatana-dharma ("eternal law") is a Hindu term that relates to the Western concept of philosophia perennis. 

• For Hindus, philosophy is more than just abstract knowledge; it is a metaphysics with moral consequences. 

• To put it another way, whatever one's theoretical conclusions about reality are, they must be put into practice in everyday life. 

• As a result, philosophy is usually viewed as a way of life rather than a meaningless exercise in logical thought. 

Furthermore, Hindu philosophy (and Indian philosophy in general) includes a spiritual component. 

• All philosophical systems accept the presence of a transcendental Reality and believe that a person's spiritual well-being is based on how he or she interacts with that Reality, with the exception of the materialist school known as Lokayata or Carvaka. 

• As a result, Hindu philosophy is closer to the spirit of ancient Greek philosophia ("love of knowledge") than to the modern academic field of conceptual analysis, which goes by the name of philosophy but isn't especially concerned with life-enhancing insight. 

• Ontology (which deals with the categories of existence), epistemology (which is concerned with the knowledge processes by which we come to know what there is "in reality"), and logic (which defines the rules of rational thought) are all areas of rational inquiry that have preoccupied Western philosophers since the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (which seeks to understand beauty). 

Hindu philosophy, like Christian philosophy, is deeply concerned with humanity's ultimate spiritual destiny. 

• As a result, it is often referred to as atma-vidya ("science of the Self") or adhyatmika-vidya ("spiritual science"). 

• Though sophisticated self-critical systems seem to be the result of the period following the birth of Buddhism in the sixth century B.C.E., the ancient Rig Veda contains the first philosophical musings or intuitions of Hinduism. 

Six systems are traditionally differentiated, which are referred to as "viewpoints" or "visions" (darshana, from the verbal root drish "to see"). 

• This statement alludes to two important aspects of Hindu philosophy: Each system is the result of visionary-intuitive processes as well as logical thought, and each system is a unique viewpoint from which the same reality is seen, implying a stance of tolerance (at least in theory, if not in practice). 

• And that same Truth is what has been passed down by word of mouth (and esoteric initiation) as the ultimate or transcendental Reality, whether it is referred to as God (ish, isha, Ishvara, all meaning "ruler"), the Self (atman, purusha), or the Absolute (brahman). 

The Vedic revelation (shruti), especially the Rig-Veda, is a major element of Hindu philosophy, and tradition refers to it. 

• The Hindu philosophers had to defer to, or at least pay lip service to, the ancient Vedic legacy in order to establish their separate schools inside the orthodox fold. 

• Purva-Mimamsa (which proposes a philosophy of sacrificial ritualism), Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta (which is the nondualist metaphysics espoused especially in the Upanishads), Samkhya (whose main contribution concerns the categories of sacrificial ritualism), Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta (which is the nondualist metaphysics espoused especially in the Upani (which is primarily a theory of logic and argument). 

• I'll provide a short overview of each school and its connection to the Yoga heritage. 

Purva-Mimarnsa. 

The Purva-Mimamsa ("Earlier Inquiry") school is so named because it analyzes the "earlier" two parts of the Vedic revelation: the early Vedic hymnodies and the Brahmana texts that explain and deepen their sacrifice rites. 

• It is opposed to the Uttara Mimamsa ("Later Inquiry"), which is represented by the Upanishads' nondualist doctrines. 

• The Mimamsa-Sutra of Jaimini gave the Purva-Mimamsa school its unique shape (c.200300 B .C.E.). 

• In line with Vedic ritualism, it expounds the art and science of moral conduct. 

• Its main point is the idea of dharma, or virtue, as it relates to an individual's religious or spiritual destiny. 

The ethical authorities (dharma-shastra) are in charge of defining and explaining the secular applications of dharma. 

• There have been many well-known Jaiminis, and the author of the Sutra must be differentiated from the sage who was a Vyasa student during the Bharata war. 

• Mimamsa philosophers, or mimamsakas, see ethical conduct as an unseen, exceptional power that shapes the world's appearance: 

• Action affects the quality of human life in both this incarnation and future incarnations since humans are inherently active. 

Bad acts (activities that violate the Vedic moral code, which is believed to reflect the global order itself) result in negative life circumstances, while good actions (actions that follow the Vedic moral code) result in favorable life circumstances. 

• The goal of leading a morally sound life is to enhance one's quality of life in the present, the afterlife, and future incarnations. 

• Because the person has free will, he or she may utilize good acts to accrue positive consequences and even cancel out bad ones. 

• The fact that the fundamental Self is transcendental and everlasting ensures free choice. 

• Unlike Vedanta, the Mimamsa tradition believes in many fundamental selves (atman). 

• These are considered inherently unconscious and only become aware in the presence of a body-mind. 

For the Mimamsa philosophers, awareness is always I-consciousness (aham-dhi). 

• Although some members of this school began to believe in a Creator God in the fourteenth century, there is no God above and beyond those numerous everlasting and omnipresent Selves. 

• Because the Self is said to lack both awareness and joy, the early mimamsakas naturally considered the liberation goal sought by other schools to be unappealing. 

• The eighth-century philosopher Kumarila Bhatta and his disciple Prabhakara were opposed to this viewpoint. 

• They both taught that abstaining from forbidden and simply optional acts, as well as diligent execution of prescribed actions, inevitably result in the separation of the Self from the bodymind—that is, freedom. 

• They saw the Self as awareness, but they didn't completely grasp the metaphysical consequences of their viewpoint. 

Yoga methods have no place in Mimamsa, which extols the concept of obligation for the sake of duty. 

• "As a philosophical perspective of the world, it is startlingly inadequate," said Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, a former president of India and a renowned scholar, of this school of thought. 

• Nothing in such a religion can "touch the heart and make it shine." However, since Poorva-Mimamsa was one of the cultural influences faced by the Yoga tradition, it must be included here. 

• Though Poorva-Mimarnsa was important in the development of logic and dialectics, this school of thinking would scarcely be considered philosophical by Western standards. 

Apart from Jaimini, Kumarila, and Prabhakara, Mandana Mishra (ninth century c.E.) is the most notable thinker of this school, which has a fairly extensive literature. 

• He subsequently converted to Shankara's Advaita Vedanta school and took the name Sureshvara. 

• In the fourteenth-century Shankara-Dig-Vijaya, a fictitious biography of Shankara, the tale of the electrifying meeting between Shankara and Mandana Mishra is recounted. 

According to tradition, the youthful Shankara, who had taken up renunciation, came to Mandana Mishra's magnificent home just as the renowned scholar of Vedic ritualism was about to begin one of his rituals. 

• Shankara, who lacked the customary hair tuft and the holy thread across his breast, irritated him. 

• Mandana Mishra, quite proud of his knowledge, challenged the guest to a discussion after a torrent of nasty comments, which Shankara accepted quietly and not without pleasure. 

• They decided, as was usual at the time, that whomever lost the argument would adopt the winner's lifestyle.

• Their intellect and wit duel attracted huge groups of academics and lasted many days. 

Ubhaya Bharati, Mandana Mishra's wife (who was really Sarasvati, the Goddess of Learning in disguise), was named umpire. 

• She quickly proclaimed her husband's loss, but quickly countered that Shankara had only beaten half of the battle; for his victory to be complete, he needed to vanquish her as well. 

• She slyly pushed the young renouncer to a sexuality debate. 

• Shankara requested an adjournment without losing his cool, so that he might familiarize himself with this field of expertise. 

• Shankara took advantage of the fact that the monarch of a neighboring country had recently died and utilized his yogic abilities to enter the body and reanimate it. 

• He returned to the palace to the joyful exclamations of the king's family. 

Shankara enjoyed and explored for a while the pleasures of sexual love among the deceased king's wives and courtesans in the spirit of Tantra. 

• According to tradition, he became so engrossed in his new life that his followers had to sneak into the palace to remind him of his previous existence as a renouncer. 

• Shankara regained his real identity and skillfully dropped the king's corpse before returning to his argument with Mandana Mishra's wife. 

• Of course, he triumphed. Mandana Mishra said that he was a Shankara student, prompting his wife, Ubhaya Bharat!, to disclose her real identity. 

• Shankara's win is often seen as a triumph of his better nondualist metaphysics against Purva-less Mimamsa's complex philosophy. 

• Although this is true, it was mainly a victory of yogic experientialism over intellectualism. 

Uttara-Mimamsa 

The many-branched school of Uttara-Mimamsa ("Later Inquiry"), also known as Vedanta ("Veda's End"), takes its name from the fact that it arose from the study of the "later" two portions of Vedic revelation: the Aranyakas (forest treatises composed by hermits) and the Upanishads (esoteric gnostic scriptures composed by sages). 

• Both the Aranyakas and the Upanishads teach the absorption of archaic rites via meditation, which is a metaphoric reworking of the old Vedic legacy. 

• The Upanishadic doctrines, in particular, gave birth to the Vedanta tradition's whole consciousness technology. 

• The Upanishads (of which there are over two hundred books), the Bhagavad-Gita (which is accorded the holy rank of an Upanishad and may date from c. 500-600 B.C.E. ), and the Vedanta Brahma-Sutra of Badarayana (c. 200 C.E.) make up the Uttara-Mimamsa school's (Vedanta) literature. 

Vedanta is the pinnacle of metaphysics. 

Its many sub-schools all teach one form or another of nondualism, in which Reality is seen as a one, homogenous totality. 

Sureshvara (the former Mandana Mishra) articulates the basic concept of Vedantic nondualism in the following stanzas from the Naishkarmya-Siddhi ("Perfection of Action-Transcendence"): 

• The failure to see the single Selfhood [of all things] is [spiritual] ignorance (avidya). 

• The experience of one's own self is the foundation of [such ignorance]. 

• It is the beginning of the world's transformation. 

The emancipation (mukti) of the ego is the elimination of that [spiritual ignorance].

• The illusion of [there being a separate] self is shattered by the fire of correct knowledge (jnana) originating from magnificent Vedic words. 

• Because action is not incompatible with ignorance, it does not [eliminate it]. 

• Action does not eliminate illusion since it originates from ignorance. 

• Because it is the polar opposite of ignorance, right understanding [alone] can eliminate it, just as the sun is the polar opposite of darkness. 

One gets scared and flees after mistaking a tree stump for a thief. 

• Similarly, a misguided individual superimposes the Self on the buddhi [i.e., the higher intellect] and other [aspects of human identity], and then acts [on the basis of that erroneous belief]. 

• Advaita Vedanta turned the previous Vedic ritualism on its head. 

• It is a gospel of gnosis, which is the liberating perception of the transcendental Reality, rather than cerebral or factual knowledge. 

• Shankara (c. 788-820 C.E.) and Ramanuja (c. 788-820 C.E.) were the two greatest exponents of Vedanta. 

• The former was successful in building a cohesive philosophical framework out of Upanishadic ideas, and is mainly responsible for Hinduism's survival and Buddhism's expulsion from India. 

Ramanuja, on the other hand, came to the Advaita Vedanta tradition's rescue when it was on the verge of becoming dry scholasticism. 

• His concept of the Divine as encompassing rather than transcending all characteristics aided the public push for a more devotional Hindu faith. 

• Many other Vedanta gurus, like Shankara and Ramanuja, have significant ties to the Yoga tradition. 

• Samkhya has moved toward intellectualism in later times as a result of its focus on discriminative knowledge rather than meditation, while Yoga has always been vulnerable to straying into simple magical psychotechnology. 

• The Samkhya philosophy has been the most dominant school of thinking within Hinduism, second only to Vedanta, and Shankara saw it as his primary foe. 

• The Sage Kapila, who is attributed with authorship of the Samkhya-Sutra, is believed to have established Samkhya. 

• Despite the fact that a teacher with that name existed during the Vedic Era, the Samkhya-Sutra seems to have been written according to certain 

Samkhya

The Samkhya ("Enumeration") tradition, which includes a wide range of schools, is mainly concerned with enumerating and explaining the major kinds of existence. 

In Western philosophy, this method is known as "ontology," or "science of being." 

• Samkhya and Yog are closely related in their metaphysical concepts, and they originally constituted an unified pre-classical school. 

• However, while Sankhya's disciples utilize discernment (viveka) and renunciation as their primary methods of salvation, yogins primarily use a combination of meditation and renunciation. 

• Sankhya is often mistakenly described as the theoretical component of Yoga practice. 

• As late as the fourteenth or fifteenth century C.E., each traditions had their own unique ideas and practical scholars. 

The Samkhya alluded to in the six darshanas is the school of ishvara Krishna (c. 350 C.E. ), creator of the SamkhyaKarika. 

• Ishvara Krishna taught that Reality is multiple, not single, in contrast to Vedanta and the older Samkhya schools described in the Mahabharata epic. 

• On one hand, there are numerous changeable and unconscious forms of Nature (prakriti), and on the other, there are countless transcendental Selves (purusha), which are pure Consciousness, omnipresent, and everlasting. 

• When examined more carefully, plurality seems to be irrational. 

• If innumerable Selves are all omnipresent, they must also be endlessly intersecting one another, making them logically identical. 

While Shankara's nondualism is the most academically beautiful, Ramanuja's qualified nondualism may satisfy both reason and intuition the best. 

• Ishvara Krishna went on to say that Nature (prakriti) is a huge composite or multidimensional structure produced by the interaction of three main forces: the dynamic characteristics, the material qualities, and the spiritual qualities (guna). 

• The term guna literally means "strand," yet it has a lot of other meanings. 

• The word signifies the irreducible ultimate "reals" of the universe in Yoga and Samkhya metaphysics. 

The three kinds of gunas are believed to mirror the energy quanta of modern physics. 

• Sattva, rajas, and tamas are the three gunas. 

• They are at the root of all physical and psychological processes. 

• Their distinct characteristics are described as follows in the Samkhya-Karika: The [three kinds of] gunas are of the natures of joy, joylessness, and dejection, and have the functions of enlightening, activating, and limiting, respectively. 

• They outnumber each other, and their actions are interconnected, productive, and cooperative. 

• Sattva is said to be uplifting and enlightening. 

• Rajas is energizing and dynamic. 

• Tamas is passive and oblivious. 

Like a lamp [made up of many components that together create the single phenomenon of light], the action [of the gunas] is purposeful. 

• Just as atoms are matter-energy, the gunas are Nature. 

• They are collectively responsible for the vast diversity of natural forms that exist on all levels of existence, with the exception of the transcendental Selves, who are pure Consciousness. 

• We can best explain the gunas by the general idea of two opposites and the middle term between them, or as Hegel's thesis, antithesis and synthesis, which are manifested in nature by light, darkness, and mist; in morals by good, bad, and indifferent, with many applications and modifications, according to German Sanskritist Max Muller. 

• The gunas are in a condition of equilibrium in the transcendental dimension of Nature, known as prakriti-pradhdna ("Nature's basis"), according to the Samkhya-Karika. 

Mahat, which literally means "great one" or "great principle," is the first product or evolute to emerge in the process of development from this transcendental matrix to the diversity of space-time forms. 

• Because of its brightness and intelligence, it is also called as buddhi ("intuition" or "cognition"), which means "greater knowledge."

• But, in fact, mahat (like other elements of Nature) is completely unconscious, and it simply symbolizes a highly refined form of matter-energy. 

Its "light" of intellect is derived from transcendental Self-Consciousness. 

• The principle of individuation, ahamkara ("I-maker"), arises from the mahat, or buddhi, and ushers in the difference between subject and object. 

• The lower mind (manas), the five cognitive senses (sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing), and the five conative senses all emerge as a result of this existential category (speech, prehension, movement, excretion, and reproduction). 

• The ahamkara principle is also responsible for the five subtle essences (tanmatra) that underpin sensory capabilities. 

• The five gross material elements (bhuta), namely earth, water, fire, air, and ether, are produced by them in tum. 

• As a result, Classical Samkhya acknowledges twenty-four different types of material existence. 

There are innumerable transcendental Self-monads outside the guna triad and its products, which are unaffected by Nature's ramifications. 

• The closeness of the transcendental Selves (purusha) to the transcendental matrix of Nature triggers the whole evolutionary process. 

• Furthermore, the procedure is for the release of those Selves who, for some inexplicable and erroneous reason, identify themselves with a specific body-mind rather than their inherent state of pure Consciousness. 

• The Samkhya tradition's psychocosmological evolutionism is intended to help people transcend the world rather than understand it. 

• It is a practical framework for individuals who seek Self-realization and come across many levels or types of existence while practicing meditation. 

Vaisheshika

The Vaisheshika ("Distinctionism") school of thought is concerned with the distinctions (vishesha) that exist between things. 

Liberation is achieved via a comprehensive knowledge of the six fundamental types of existence, according to the teachings:

l. The ninefold substance (dravya): earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, thought (manas), and Self (atman)

2. quality (guna), which is divided into twenty-three categories, including color, sensory impressions, magnitude, and so forth. 

3. take action (karma)

4. universality (samanya or jati)

5. the specific (vishesha) Yoga particularly refers to the school of Patanjali, the author of the Yoga-Sutra, among the six schools of Hindu philosophy. 

• This school, also known as Classical Yoga, is regarded a relative of ishvara Krishna's Samkhya school.  

• Both are dualist ideologies that teach that the transcendental Selves (purusha) are fundamentally different from Nature (prakriti) and that the former is eternally unchanging, while the latter is always changing and therefore unsuitable for long-term pleasure. 

6. inherence (samavaya), which refers to the logical connection that must exist between wholes and pieces, or substances and their characteristics, and so on. 

Kanada, the author of the Vaisheshika-Sutra, who flourished about 500 or 600 B.C.E., established the Vaisheshika school. 

• Kanada seems to be a nickname, literally meaning "particle eater." 

• Although some Sanskrit sources say that the term immortalizes the fact that this great ascetic lived on grain particles (kana), it is likely that it alludes to the kind of philosophy he developed. 

• Both readings may be accurate. Kanada's school of thinking has an enigmatic beginning. 

Some academics believe it is a descendant of the earlier Mimamsa school, while others view it as a continuation of the materialist tradition, and yet others believe it has its origins in a schismatic branch of Jainism. 

• The Vaisheshika school is similar to the Nyaya system, with which it is usually associated, in terms of general direction and metaphysics. 

• Both of these systems are the closest to what we think of as philosophy in the West. 

• They contributed to Indian thinking for a long time, but neither school has remained dominant. 

• The Vaisheshika school is almost extinct, while the Nyaya school has just a few adherents, most of whom live in Bengal. 

Nyaya

The Nyaya ("Rule") school of thought was founded by Akshapada Gautama (c.500 B.C.E. ), who lived during a period of intense debate between Vedic ritualism and such heterodox developments as Buddhism and Jainism—an era in which critical thinking and debating were at an all-time high, similar to that of Greece. 

One of the first efforts to establish sound logic and rhetorical principles was his. 

• Gautama's moniker, Akshapada, suggests that he had a tendency of gazing down at his feet (perhaps while being immersed in thought or in order to purify the ground while walking). 

• He is credited with writing the Nyaya-Sutra, which has been the subject of many comments. 

• Vatsyayana Pakshilasvamin's commentary (c. 400 C.E.) is the earliest surviving commentary, written at a period when Buddhism was still dominant in India. 

Bharadvaja's or Uddyotakara's Nyaya-Varttika is another excellent commentary, with a good subcommentary by Vacaspati Mishra, who also wrote on Yoga. 

• Around 1200 C.E., Nyaya began flowering, marking the start of the so-called Nava-Nyaya era (or "New Nyaya"). 

• In order to live properly and pursue meaningful objectives, Akshapada Gautama began with the realization that we must first define what constitutes right knowledge. 

• He developed sixteen categories considered essential for anybody wanting to discover the truth, in keeping with the Indic flare for categorization. 

• These topics include the acquisition of genuine knowledge (pramana), the nature of doubt, and the distinction between discussion and simple bickering. 

The Nyaya school's metaphysics is of particular importance. 

• There are several transcendental Subjects, or Selves, according to Nyaya's disciples (atman). 

• The ultimate actor underlying the human mind is each infinite Self, and each Self enjoys and suffers the consequences of its acts in the limited universe. 

• God is seen as a unique atman in Classical Yoga, and he is the only one who is aware. 

The Nyaya thinkers advocated the pursuit of freedom (apavarga) as the greatest aim in life, despite the fact that the human Selves are all regarded unconscious, like in the Mimamsa school. 

• Of course, their opponents did not miss an opportunity to point out the impossibility of a freedom that would result in a rocklike, insentient life. 

• The fact that Nyaya followers sought spiritual shelter in Shaivism's religious doctrines demonstrates how little they believed in their own metaphysics. 

• Between Nyaya and Yoga, there are many places of interaction. 

• The NyayaSutra describes yoga as a state in which the mind is in touch with the Self alone, resulting in mental balance and a lack of sensitivity to physical discomfort. 

Vatsyayana Pakshilasvamin said that yogins may see distant and even future occurrences while addressing different kinds of perception, a talent that can be developed by consistent practice of meditative focus. 

• The word apavarga refers to liberation, and it is also used in the Yoga-Sutra (2. 1 8) to contrast it with the concept of world experience (bhoga). 

• Another interesting similarity is that both Nyaya and Classical Yoga follow the sphota theory. 

• The everlasting connection between a word and its sound is referred to by this phrase. 

The notion is that the letters y, o, g, and a, or even the whole term yoga, cannot adequately express our understanding of the phenomenon known as "Yoga." 

• Over and above these letters or sounds, there is an everlasting idea, the essence of a thing, which "bursts out" (sphuta) or exposes itself spontaneously in our mind upon hearing a sequence of sounds, leading to understanding of the object so indicated. 

• A last point of connection is that a Nyaya follower is also known as yauga, which means "one who does Yoga." It's unclear what this designation conceals. 

Hindu philosophy is divided into six schools, which is rather arbitrary. 

• Many other schools, particularly those connected with sectarian movements, have played an important role in the development of Indian philosophy at one point or another. 

• It's important to remember that Yoga impacted most of these methods and traditions, but it did so more as a loose collection of ideas, beliefs, and practices than as Patanjali's philosophical framework (darshana).

 

You may also want to read more about Kundalini Yoga here.

You may also want to read more about Yoga here.

You may also want to read more about Yoga Asanas and Exercises here.

You may also want to read more about Hinduism here.

Be sure to check out my writings on religion here.