Hinduism - Where Is The Ganges Or Ganga? What Is The Religious Significance Of Bathing In The Ganges?

 

The Ganges is a northern Indian river that originates in a number of tiny streams in the Himalaya Mountains.

It enters the northern Indian plain near Haridwar, flows east through Uttar Pradesh to Allahabad, where it joins the Yamuna River, and then continues east through Bihar and West Bengal until reaching the sea at Ganga Sagar.

The Ganges is shorter than many other major rivers at 1,560 kilometers, yet for Hindus, no river has more sacred significance.

To devout Hindus, the Ganges is more than a river; it is the goddess Ganga, who has come down from heaven to cleanse them of all sin and pollution.

There are no superlatives reserved for the Ganges—every drop is hallowed, every inch along its banks is holy, and just viewing it, drinking from it, touching it, or thinking about it confers enormous religious value.

It is also said to be the perfect location for performing particular funeral rituals.

The Ganges has become a sacred site for Hindus because of their dedication and regard for it.

The religious significance of the Ganges is evident in the religious rites associated with it, as well as the several well-known pilgrimage sites (tirtha) situated along its banks, notably Benares.

The Ganges is regarded as the model for a holy river.

Other holy rivers in India, such as the Godavari and the Cauvery, are said to "be" the Ganges, meaning that bathing (snana) in them confers the same religious blessings as bathing in the Ganges.

 

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Hinduism - Who Is Goddess Ganga In Hindu Mythology? What Is Lord Vishnu's Promise To Her?

 

The deity whose physical form is the Ganges River in Hindu mythology.

The Ganges is revered because it is said to be a goddess who has the capacity to cleanse individuals who bathe (snana) in it of their sins.

Several stories exist to explain her origins.

The most well-known is the story of King Bhagirath, who succeeds in bringing the Ganges down from heaven to earth by ascetic discipline.

Bhagirath is the great-greatgrandson of King Sagar, whose 60,000 sons were burnt to ashes by the sage Kapila's magical abilities after falsely accusing Kapila of thievery.

Later, Kapila informs Anshuman, King Sagar's grandson and only living descendent, that bringing the Ganges down from heaven to earth is the only way to restore peace to the spirits of Sagar's sons.

Anshuman, like his son Dilip before him, tries miserably to achieve this goal.

Bhagirath, Dilip's son, is moved by their efforts and retreats to the Himalayas, where he practices asceticism until the gods agree to bring the Ganges down to earth.

Bhagiratha's efforts, however, are not yet complete.

Then he must win the favor of the deity Shiva, who must agree to absorb the impact of the falling river on his head.

Otherwise, the earth will be destroyed by its might.

The Ganges eventually crashes to earth on Shiva's head when everything is in place.

Bhagirath brings Ganga down of the mountains and to the sea, where she touches the ashes of his forefathers and the two of them eventually find peace.

This legend emphasizes the Ganga's salvific power as well as her close ties to the dead's final rituals (antyeshthi samskara).

According to another legend, the Ganges descends to earth as a result of a curse declared by Vishnu and his wives Ganga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati after a family feud.

Saraswati becomes enraged and proceeds to beat Ganga when she witnesses Ganga and Vishnu sharing passionate looks in public.

As Lakshmi attempts to stop her, Saraswati unleashes a series of curses, including Vishnu's birth as a stone (the shalagram), Lakshmi's birth as a plant (the tulsi plant), and Ganga's birth as a river, carrying the world's sins.

Saraswati is cursed to become a river throughout the struggle.

Ganga's punishment is sweetened by Vishnu's promise that she would be regarded exceedingly holy on earth and will have the capacity to cleanse people's sins.

She will also descend from heaven onto the head of the deity Shiva and become his spouse, according to Vishnu. 

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Hinduism - Where Is Benares?

 

On the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh, there is a city and a holy center (tirtha). 

Benares is an anglicized version of the name Varanasi, which is one of the city's original Hindu names, along with Kashi and Avimukta. 

• The titles Avimukta, Varanasi, and Kashi are all used to refer to the whole city, but in this case, they refer to concentric holy zones around the Vishvanath temple; Avimukta being the smallest, followed by Varanasi, and lastly Kashi. 

• Benares, like all other pilgrimage sites along the Ganges, is revered for its closeness to the river, especially since the Ganges flows in a northerly direction at Benares, which is considered fortunate. 

• The Ganges is an important element of Benares' identity, and it is the focus of most of the city's religious activity. 

The deity Shiva, however, is the most significant holy presence in the city. 

• Benares is Shiva's home on Earth and the location where he never departs, thus the term Avimukta ("never forsaken"). 

• The most significant Shiva temple is the Vishvanath (“Lord of the Universe”) temple, which is spread across the city—some ancient, some modern, and some almost forgotten. 

• Vishvanath is one of Shiva's twelve jyotirlingas, a collection of holy Shiva locations. 

The Moghul emperor Aurangzeb demolished the old Vishvanath temple and replaced it with a mosque; the current Vishvanath temple was constructed close to the original spot. 

• Benares is one of the seven holy towns where death gives soul freedom because of Shiva's everlasting presence (moksha). 

• Shiva is said to appear to the dying individual at the time of death and give his salvific knowledge. 

• Shiva's presence may also be felt at the holy location Manikarnika Ghat, which is located in the center of the city rather than on the outskirts like most other sites. 

• Shiva gives humans a lesson here as well; particularly, Shiva warns them of their impending demise. 

• This is not to make people sad or depressed, but to encourage them to pursue a genuine religious life. 

Benares is an excellent location to die or immerse oneself in spiritual life due to the presence of the Ganges and Shiva; yet, it is also an exceptionally lively place to live. 

• It has a long history as a trade hub and market town, and it still is today, despite the fact that the creaking wooden boats that formerly traversed the Ganges have been replaced by other modes of transportation. 

• Weavers and metalworkers, many of whom are Muslim, are well-known in Benares. 

For at least a few millenia, it has also been known as a cultural hub. 

• From grammar to astrology to medicine, Benares is still one of India's most significant hubs for ancient Sanskritic study. 

• It is also a hub for music, dancing, and the arts, and it has been home to a slew of Indian religious luminaries, including poet-saints Tulsidas, Ravidas, and Kabir, among others. 

Diana Eck, Banaras, 1999, provides a comprehensive account of the city and its inhabitants.

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Hinduism - Who Is Bhagirath?

 The one person most responsible in Hindu mythology for bringing the heavenly Ganges down to earth. 

Because the river Ganges and the goddess Ganges are identical, the river is revered. 

• Bhagirath is the great-great-grandson of King Sagar, whose 60,000 sons were burnt to ashes by the sage Kapila's magical abilities after they falsely accused Kapila of thievery. 

• The guru subsequently informs Anshuman, King Sagar's grandson and only living descendent, that bringing the Ganges from heaven down to earth is the only way to restore peace to their spirits. 

• Anshuman, like his son Dilip before him, tries for the rest of his life, but both are unsuccessful. 

Bhagirath, Dilip's son, is moved by their efforts and retreats to the Himalayas, where he practices penance until the gods agree to bring the Ganges down to earth. 

• Bhagirath's efforts, however, are not yet complete. 

• He must next satisfy Shiva in order for the god to accept to bear the impact of the descending river on his head, since the river's power would otherwise destroy the earth. 

• The Ganges ultimately descends to earth on Shiva's head when everything is in place. 

• Bhagirath then guides the river out of the mountains to the sea, where she touches the ashes of his forefathers, and they finally find rest.

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Hinduism - Who Is Bhagirathi?

The Ganges is referred to as both a river and a deity. 

The name Bhagirathi comes from Bhagirath, the one most responsible for bringing the Ganges to earth. 

• The Ganges is created when the Bhagirathi joins the Alakananda River near Devaprayag, and the Bhagirathi is also the name of a Himalayan tributary of the river. 

The Bhagirathi runs past Gangotri, the holy location (tirtha) regarded as the Ganges' source, despite the fact that the Alakananda is longer and broader. 

• The Bhagirathi, like all of the Ganges' Himalayan tributaries, is considered holy. 

• Gangotri at its headwaters, Uttarkashi, and Devaprayag are all important pilgrimage sites along this stream.

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Hinduism - Where Is Gangotri?

 

Gangotri is a sacred location (tirtha) in the Himalayas, located near the headwaters of the Bhagirathi River, one of the Ganges' Himalayan tributaries.

Although the river's real source is the glacier at Gaumukh, some twelve miles upstream, Gangotri is considered the Ganges' rite of passage.

Due to its high elevation, it is only accessible from late April to October, after which it closes for the winter months.

The river itself is a sacred site in Gangotri, where pilgrims wash (snana) in the freezing waters.

The temple to the goddess Ganga, erected around 250 years ago by the Gurkha ruler Amar Singh Thapa and rebuilt by the royal line of Jaipur in the late nineteenth century, is the other focal point.

A big stone slab beside the riverside is claimed to be where the sage Bhagirath undertook his austerities to bring the Ganges down to earth.

Gangotri is regarded extremely sacred, as are other spots where the Ganges makes a changeover.

Its sacredness is enhanced by the fact that it is difficult to reach and only open during the summer months. 

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Hinduism - Where Is Haridwar? Why Is Haridwar Sacred?

A Sacred city (tirtha) on the Ganges River, about 140 miles northeast of Delhi. One of India's Seven Sacred Cities is Haridwar.

It is said that dying in one of these cities ensures one's soul's ultimate release.

It is situated on the outskirts of the Shiwalik Hills, which are the Himalayan foothills, and is where the Ganges is said to emerge from the mountains and into the northern Indian plain.

Haridwar is regarded extremely sacred, as are other areas where the Ganges makes a natural transition, and has been a pilgrimage destination since at least the sixth century, when Chinese missionary Hsuan Tsang recorded massive pilgrim throngs.

Haridwar's main appeal is as a bathing (snana) destination, which attracts big people on festival days.

It has long been a popular location for conducting asthi-visarjana, the final of the burial rituals (antyeshthi samskara), which involves immersing the deceased's ashes in the Ganges.

Haridwar is also an important entrance to the pilgrimage sites in the Garhwal area of the Himalayas, and it acts as an essential transit and supply point to destinations farther up in the mountains during the pilgrim season (April–October).

Finally, as a haven for ascetics, Haridwar has a long history.

It is a prominent location for a number of ascetic organizations, notably the Naga class of the Dashanami Sanyasis, who are traders-soldiers who are Shiva worshipers (bhakta).

Many ascetics who spend their summers in the Himalayas use it as their winter quarters.

The presence of so many ascetics has had a significant impact on the city's overall character, as seen by the hundreds of ashrams that dot the city and the bans on the sale of eggs, meat, and booze. 

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Hinduism - Who Is Jahnavi?

 

 ("Jahnu's daughter") The Ganges River is considered by Hindus to be the physical manifestation of the goddess Ganga.

The name Jahnavi alludes to an experience she had with Jahnu, a renowned ascetic who had gathered immense strength via undertaking hard physical asceticism, during her formation (tapas).

While the sage is meditating nearby, the Ganges takes up and carries away Jahnu's things after the sage Bhagirath has brought her down to earth, but before she makes her journey to the ocean.

Jahnu is angry by the disrespect, and in order to punish Ganga, he consumes all of the river's water.

The gods are exceedingly disturbed when they understand what has transpired.

They are able to appease Jahnu, and the sage agrees to let her go.

The issue then becomes how to contaminate the Ganges without puking her up or voiding her as pee, both of which are undesirable options.

Finally, Jahnu solves the problem by releasing her via his ear.

She continues on her journey to the sea, but since she was "born" from Jahnu, she takes the name Jahnavi. 

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Hinduism - Where Is Devaprayag? What Does Devaprayag Mean?

Devaprayag ("divine confluence") is a term used to describe the occurrence of two or more Sacred town (tirtha) in Uttar Pradesh's northern region, nestled in the Himalaya Mountains approximately sixty miles up the Ganges from Haridwar. 

The confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alakananda rivers, the major Himalayan tributaries of the Ganges, makes Devaprayag holy. 

In the Himalayas, Devaprayag is the penultimate such river confluence, and it is here that the Ganges is ultimately created as one indivisible holy stream. 

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Satyavan

 

In Hindu mythology, Satyavan is the spouse of Savitri, a lady known for her love to her husband as well as her cunning in outwitting Death in order to reclaim her husband after he died.

In Hindu mythology, Satyavati is the mother of the sage Vyasa.

Satyavati comes into the world in a unique manner.

Her mother, a heavenly nymph who is cursed to live as a fish in the Ganges, consumes some sperm that has fallen into the Ganges, gets pregnant, and gives birth to a son and a daughter.

Satyavati matures into a lovely young lady, but her origins lead her to perpetually smell like fish, earning her the nickname Matsyagandhi ("fish-scent").

She works as a ferry driver on the Ganges, and one day she transports the sage Parashara, who is enchanted by her beauty.

Parashara produces an artificial fog to give the two of them privacy, has sexual contact with her, and promises that Satyavati would no longer smell like fish from that day forward.

Vyasa is the son of this relationship.

Satyavati continues her profession, until one day she ferries King Shantanu, who is likewise enamored with her beauty.

She asks that her sons control Shantanu's realm before she marries him.

Shantanu accepts, and his son Bhishma swears never to marry, ensuring that his family would never compete with hers.

Satyavati has two sons: Chitrangada and Vichitravirya.

Chitrangada dies as a kid, while Vichitravirya dies after marrying the princesses Ambika and Ambalika but before having offspring.

Satyavati, desperate, remembers her first son Vyasa, who has a son with each of the wives: Pandu with Ambalika, and Dhrtarashtra with Ambika.

The warring families in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata, of which Vyasa is known as the narrator, are descended from these two sons.

Hinduism - Who Is Dilip In Hindu Mythology?

In Hindu mythology, one of the characters in the founding tale depicting the Ganges' descent from heaven to earth. 

Dilip is King Sagar's great-grandson and the father of Bhagirath, the sage who eventually completes the assignment. 

The narrative starts with King Sagar, whose 60,000 brave sons insulted the sage Kapila and were subsequently consumed by the fire of Kapila's yogic abilities. 

The spirits of Sagar's deceased uncles would find rest only when the Ganges River (which is thought to be the tangible embodiment of the goddess Ganga) descends from heaven and touches their ashes, says Kapila to Sagar's grandson Anshuman. 

Following this, the family works tirelessly to achieve this aim; Anshuman and Dilip die before achieving it, but Bhagirath eventually succeeds by practicing penance until the gods agree to deliver the Ganges to earth. 

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Hinduism - Where Does The Yamuna River Flow In India?

 

Yamuna River is a river in India. The Yamuna River is a northern Indian river that originates in the Himalayas and flows west and south of the Ganges River before joining it at Allahabad in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

Along with the Ganges, Godavari, Saraswati, Narmada, Indus, and Cauvery, the Yamuna is regarded one of India's seven holy rivers.

The Yamuna runs through the Braj area south of Delhi, which is historically associated with Krishna's country, and his followers (bhakta) hold it in higher regard than the Ganges.

Places around the Braj area have great connotations with Krishna's life for his devotees, but Mathura and Brindavan are the most noteworthy.

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Hinduism - Who Were The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty?

 

The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty ruled from the 7th to the 11th centuries.

Northern Indian dynasty that arose when the Pushyabhuti dynasty fell apart late in the seventh century, leaving a political vacuum.

The Gurjara-Pratiharas, like the Pushyabhutis, had their capital at Kanyakubja, which is located on the Ganges River in Uttar Pradesh's eastern region.

The Gurjara-Pratiharas ruled much of the Indian subcontinent north of the Vindhya Mountains, as well as the Ganges basin deep into West Bengal, during its apex in the early eighth century.

The dynasty was weakened when the kingdom was divided in half in the mid-eighth century, with the Gurjaras ruling over the western portion of the kingdom from their seat at Ujjain and the Pratiharas ruling from Kanyakubja.

Both kingdoms were constantly at odds with the Rashtrakuta dynasty, which governed central India south of the Vindhya Mountains, as well as Muslim raids from modern-day Afghanistan.

The Chandella dynasty defeated the Gurjara kingdom in 1019, confining it to the lower Ganges valley.

Around 1050 C.E., it vanished completely.

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Hinduism - What Does Devaprayag Mean?

 

Devaprayag ("divine confluence") is a term used to describe the occurrence of two or more Sacred town (tirtha) in Uttar Pradesh's northern region, nestled in the Himalaya Mountains approximately sixty miles up the Ganges from Haridwar. 

The confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alakananda rivers, the major Himalayan tributaries of the Ganges, makes Devaprayag holy. 

In the Himalayas, Devaprayag is the penultimate such river confluence, and it is here that the Ganges is ultimately created as one indivisible holy stream. 

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Hinduism - Where Is The Tryambakeshvar Tirtha In India?

 

Temple and sacred site (tirtha) in the village of Trimbak, Nasik district, Maharashtra, near the Godavari River's headwaters.

The temple is named after the god Shiva as the "Three-Eyed Lord," who is the presiding deity.

Shiva is present in Tryambakeshvar in the form of a linga, Shiva's symbolic form, which is a pillar-shaped figure.

The Tryambakeshvar linga is one of Shiva's twelve jyotirlingas, a network of holy Shiva locations where Shiva is physically present.

Tryambakeshvar's founding story starts with the sage Gautama, who unwisely kills an elderly cow with a stick, committing the sin of cow slaughter.

Gautama is instructed that in order to atone for his wrongdoing, he must first accumulate enough merit to draw the Ganges down to earth, and then he must create and worship 10 million Shiva lingas carved out of the sand on the Ganges' banks.

Gautama is dedicated to his penance (prayashchitta).

He is rewarded with a vision of Shiva, who satisfies his request that both the Ganges and Shiva would stay there forever—the former in her form as the Godavari, the latter as Tryambakeshvar—after he worships the 10 millionth linga.

~Kiran Atma

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Hinduism - Where Is Gaumukh? What Does Gaumukh Mean?

 ("cow's mouth") is a word that means "mouth of a cow." High in the Himalayas, a sacred location (tirtha).

It is situated on the glacier that is the source of the Bhagirathi River, which is one of the Ganges' tributaries.

Gaumukh is 12 miles upriver from Gangotri, the spot where the Ganges is ritually worshipped as its source.

The Ganges is said to originate from the mouth of a cow in Hindu mythology, thus the name. 

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Hinduism And Hindu Theology - Where Is Allahabad?

 

Allahabad literally means "Allah's City". The city is located at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. 

• The city was given the name Allahabad by the Moghul emperor Akbar, who constructed a fort there in 1583 to demonstrate Moghul dominance over the area. 

• The confluence of the rivers is traditionally regarded a holy bathing (snana) spot, and the city was given the name Prayaga (“place of sacrifice”) by the Hindus. 

• The holy place (tirtha) is still known by this term to differentiate it from the city that surrounds it. 

• Triveni (“triple stream”) is another name for the confluence, which refers to the ancient belief that the two visible rivers are joined at the confluence by a third subterranean river, the Saraswati. 

• A banyan tree considered to be the akshaya vata (“indestructible banyan tree”) grows near the bathing site, although it is now relatively tiny despite its strong moniker. 

Prayaga is regarded particularly holy, as are all sites where the Ganges undergoes a natural transition—here, its confluence with another sacred river—and bathing there is seen to bestow even more religious merit than a regular Ganges bath. 

Bathing at especially auspicious periods in the calendar may enhance this holiness even further. 

• The annual Magh Mela, for example, is a bathing event that takes place during the lunar month of Magh (January–February). 

• The holiest time to bathe is at the Kumbha Mela event, which takes place every twelve years when Jupiter is in Taurus. 

• Six years after the Kumbha Mela, the Ardha (“half”) Kumbha Mela takes place, which has less sanctity than the “full” Kumbha Mela but is nevertheless regarded a very auspicious occasion. 

• The Kumbha Mela at Allahabad in 1989 was the world's biggest religious event, with an estimated fifteen million people attending on a single day.

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Hinduism - Where Is The Ganga Sagar?

 

Sacred location (tirtha) on Sagar Island, in the Bay of Bengal, on the outskirts of the Hugli River delta.

Where the Ganges River meets the sea is known as Ganga Sagar (sagar).

This site, like all the spots where the Ganges makes a natural changeover, is considered very sacred.

On Makara Sankranti, the day in January when the sun starts its northward path, Ganga Sagar has its largest celebration.

Hundreds of thousands of pilgrims flock to bathe on this day (snana).

The location is also known for a temple dedicated to the irascible sage Kapila, whose flaming strength incinerates King Sagar's 60,000 sons and puts in motion a chain of events culminating in King Bhagirath bringing the Ganges to earth. 

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Hinduism - What Is The Hindu Festival Of Makara Sankranti?

 

Makara Sankranti is the Hindu New Year.

A religious celebration that occurs on the day the sun enters the zodiac sign of Capricorn (sankranti) (makara).

This happens around December 20 according to Western astrology, but January 14 according to Indian astrology (jyotisha).

This is one of the rare times throughout the festival year when the solar calendar is used rather than the lunar calendar.

The sun is said to be starting its "northward trek" on Makara Sankranti (uttarayana).

This will last for six months, until Karka Sankranti, when the sun enters Cancer and starts its "southward journey" (dakshinayana).

Because the uttarayana is seen to be more fortunate than its counterpart, the day of its transition is considered especially auspicious.

Makara Sankranti is predominantly a bathing (snana) celebration, with large crowds flocking to rivers, particularly the Ganges, on that day.

The greatest bathing festival on the Ganges is held on Sagar Island (also known as Ganga Sagar) in West Bengal, where the Ganges empties into the sea in the Bay of Bengal.

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Hinduism - Indian History Timeline

In light of a new perspective, Hindu India's recorded history may be conveniently divided into nine eras, each expressing distinct cultural styles. 

Because history is essentially continuous, the following chronology is extremely speculative, and the periodization is arbitrary to some extent. 

•  Although the date of the first four historical eras is speculative, the conventional chronology presented in college textbooks is as well. 

•  The Vedas must obviously be placed in a time period prior to the benchmark date of 1 900 B C E, as will be demonstrated soon. 

How much earlier is unknown with any certainty, though astronomical references in the Vedas, as well as dynastic genealogies (from the Puriinas) and a list of sages in the Briihmanas and Upanishads, support a date of at least two thousand years prior to 1200 B C E, which is the commonly accepted but demonstrably incorrect date for the composition of the Rig-Veda. 

• For identical reasons, the creation of the original Briihmanas must be pushed back in time before 1 900 B C E, just as the Vedas must be ascribed to an earlier era. 

• In light of all of this, the earliest Upanishads, which are usually believed to have been written soon before the Buddha's time, should be put considerably earlier. 

1. Pre-Vedic Period (6500-4500 B C E).

 

Archaeological excavation in eastern Baluchistan (Pakistan) has uncovered a metropolis the size of Stanford, California, that dates from the middle of the seventh millennium B C E Archaeologists have named this early Neolithic settlement Mehrgarh, and it anticipated later urban civilization along the two major rivers of northern India: the Indus and the now-dry Sarasvati east of it. 

•  Mehrgarh's population was believed to be about 20,000 people, which was a large number at the time. 

•  The town seems to have been a center of technical invention and innovation, in addition to being a thriving marketplace for imported and exported products. 

•  By the fourth millennium B C E, the hardworking inhabitants of Mehrgarh had mass-produced good-quality pottery and were cultivating cotton as early as the fifth millennium B C E Terra-cotta figures from about 2600 B C E show a striking aesthetic similarity to the art of the Indus-Sarasvati civilization as well as later Hinduism. 

 

2.  Vedic Period (4500-2500 B C E).

 

The development and cultural dominance of the wisdom tradition reflected in the hymns of the four Vedas characterize this era. 

•  The majority of the hymns were written around the fourth millennium B C E, according to astronomical allusions in the Rig-Veda, with some hymns potentially going back to the fifth millennium B C E.

The ultimate bottom limit of the Vedic period is set by a major natural disaster: the drying up of the powerful Sarasvati River over many hundred years, presumably as a consequence of geological and climatic changes. 

 

• Around 3100 B C E, the Yamuna River altered its path and stopped flowing into the Sarasvati, becoming a tributary of the Ganges instead. 

•  Around 2300 B C E, the Sutlej, the Sarasvati's largest tributary, began to flow into the Ganges. 

•  The Sarasvati, formerly the largest stream in Northern India, had dried up by 1900 B C E The many settlements along its banks were soon abandoned and eventually buried by the enormous Thar Desert's dunes. 

Given the age of the Vedic poems and the fact that the Sanskrit-speaking Aryans were not foreign invaders, we can only come to one conclusion: the Vedic people lived in India at the same time as the so-called Indus civilization. 

• Furthermore, the cultural world as reflected in the Vedic hymns is in no way contradicted by the archaeological remnants of that civilization. 

•  As a result, we must conclude that the inhabitants of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, as well as the hundreds of other cities along the Indus and Sarasvati rivers, were the same as the Vedic Aryans. 

•  Furthermore, as has been shown, Vedic mathematics impacted Babylonian mathematics, implying that the Shulba-Sutras containing Vedic mathematical theory must have existed about 1800 B C E. 

• Because the Sutras are thought to be older than the Brahmanas, the Vedas' chronology may be pushed back to the third millennium B C E to account for these developments. 

According to some academics, the epic battle recounted in the Mahabharata, which is traditionally dated to 3102 B C E, marks the end of the Vedic Age (which includes the Brahmanas and Upanishads). 

• This marks the start of the Kali-yuga, the dark epoch described in subsequent Puranas, Tantras, and other texts. 

• This date, however, is likely too early, and a date for the battle and the final redaction of the four Vedic hymnodies of about 1500 B C E is more plausible. 

3.  The Brahmanical Age(2500-1500 B C E).

The Vedic civilization moved east to the fertile banks of the Ganges (Ganga) River and its tributaries when the towns along the Sarasvati and Indus rivers collapsed. 

•  The changing environmental circumstances in the new settlement regions, predictably, resulted in changes in the social structure, which became more complicated. 

•  During this time, the priestly class evolved into a highly skilled professional elite who quickly came to dominate Vedic culture and religion. 

•  The Brahmana literature, after which this period is called, captures the priesthood's theological-mythological speculations and ceremonial preoccupations. 

•  The Aranyakas (ritual texts for forest-dwelling ascetics) and the vast Sutra literature dealing with legal and ethical problems as well as the arts were also created in the last decades of this period. 

 

4. The Upanishadic/Post-Vedic Era (1500-1000 B C E).

 

We enter a new era with its own unique philosophical and cultural character with the emergence of the first Upanishads. 

•  They popularized the concept of internalized ritualism, or "inner sacrifice" (antaryajna), in combination with world renunciation. 

•  We may discern the origins of India's psychospiritual technology in these anonymously written holy texts, which constitute the third level of Vedic revelation (shruti). 

•  Yet, contrary to popular belief, the Upanishads do not constitute a dramatic departure from Vedic thinking; rather, they simply explain what is hinted at or present in a rudimentary way in the Vedas. 

•  The end of the Post-Vedic Age is marked by the rise of non-Vedic religions such as Jainism and Buddhism. 

5. The Epic or Pre-Classical Period (1000-100 B C E).

India's metaphysical and ethical philosophy was in a state of flux throughout the fifth period of the current chronology. 

•  It had progressed to the point where the different religious and philosophical systems were able to engage in a fruitful debate. 

•  At the same time, we can see a positive trend toward unifying the many psychospiritual pathways, particularly the two major orientations of world renunciation (samnyasa) on the one hand and social duty acceptance (dharma) on the other. 

This is where Yoga and Samkhya's pre-classical development takes place. 

• The lessons contained in the Mahabharata epic, in which the oldest full Yoga book, the Bhagavad-Gita, is incorporated, finest exemplify the integrative, syncretistic ethos. 

•  The enormous Mahabharata as we know it was written during this time period, but its core, which commemorates the epic battle between the Pandavas and the Kaurvas, dates from a far earlier period. 

•  Because of the epic's importance throughout this time period, it is also known as the Epic Age. 

•  Although the Ramayana epic is older than the Mahabharata, its historical core dates from almost thirty generations before the Mahabharata. 

 

6. The Classical Period (100 B C E-500 C E).

The six ancient schools of Hindu philosophy escalated their long-running battle for intellectual dominance throughout this period. 

•  The Yoga-Surra of Patanjali and the Brahma-Surra of Badarayana were composed in the middle of this era, while the Samkhya marked the conclusion. 

•  This is also the time when Mahayana Buddhism began to take shape, resulting in a burgeoning interaction between Buddhists and Hindus. 

•  The fall of the Gupta dynasty, whose final major king, Skan¬dagupta, died about 455 C E, corresponds with the end of the Classical Age. 

•  The arts and sciences thrived tremendously during the Gupta rulers; whose reign started in 320 C E 

• Despite the fact that the monarchs were ardent Vaishnavists, they were tolerant of other faiths, allowing Buddhism to flourish and make its imprint on Indian culture. 

•  The Chinese emperor Fa-hien was awestruck by the land and its people. 

•  He describes affluent cities with many charity organizations, as well as rest stops for highway visitors. 

  

7. The Tantric/Puranic Age (500-1300 C E ).

We may see the beginnings of the great cultural revolution of Tantra, or Tantrism, about the middle of the first millennium C E, or perhaps earlier. 

This tradition, whose remarkable psychotechnology, is the impressive result of millennia of labor to build a great philosophical and spiritual synthesis from the various divergent approaches that existed at the period. 

•  Tantra, in particular, may be thought of as combining the highest metaphysical concepts and aspirations with common (rural) beliefs and practices. 

•  Tantra came to be known as the gospel of the Kali Yuga (dark era). 

•  Tantric doctrines had spread throughout the Indian subcontinent by the first millennium C E, affecting and transforming the spiritual lives of Hindus, Buddhists, and Jainas equally. 

•  Tantra, on the one hand, was just a continuation of a millennia-old process of amalgamation and synthesis; on the other, it was really innovative. 

•  Tantra was of the greatest importance on the level of spiritual practice, while adding nothing to India's intellectual repertory. 

 It advocated a spiritual lifestyle that was diametrically opposed to much of what had previously been deemed acceptable within the Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. 

•  Tantra, in particular, gave intellectual legitimacy to the feminine psychosomatic component (known as shakti), which had long been recognized in more local Goddess worship cults. 

•  This period is also known as the Puranic Age, since the vast encyclopedic collections known as the Purcinas were produced during this time period based on far earlier Puranic traditions (dating back to the Vedic era). 

•  The Purcinas are holy narratives that have been woven with a network of intellectual, mythological, and ceremonial knowledge. 

•  Many of these books are influenced by Tantra, and many of them include useful Yoga knowledge. 

 

8. The Age of Sectarianism (1300-1 700 C E). 

The Tantric rediscovery of the feminine principle in philosophy and yoga practice paved the way for the bhakti movement, the next phase in India's cultural history. 

• This religious devotionalism movement was the climax of the major sectarian groups' monotheistic ambitions, particularly the Vaishnavas and Shaivas; thus the name Sectarian Age. 

•  The devotional movement, or bhakti-marga, completed the pan-Indian synthesis that had begun during the Pre-Classical/Epic Age by include the emotional component in the psychological/spiritual process. 

  

9. The Modern Era ( 1700-Present). 

 

The syncretistic bhakti movement was followed by the Mughal empire's fall in the first part of the nineteenth century and the increasing political presence of European countries in India, culminating in Queen Victoria's assumption of the title Empress of India in 1880. 

•  The Queen was enthralled by Hindu mysticism and invited yogins and other spiritual leaders to her court. 

Since the establishment of the East India Company in London in 1 600 and the Dutch East India Company two years later, Western secular imperialism has had an increasing effect on India's age-old religious traditions. 

•  This has resulted in a progressive weakening of the native Scandinavian value system via the adoption of a Western-style (science-oriented and basically materialist) education coupled with new technology. 

 

The following comment by Carl Gustav Jung comes to mind in this regard: 

• The European conquest of the East was a massive act of aggression, and it has left us with the responsibility—noblesse oblige—of comprehending the Eastern mentality. 

•  This is perhaps more important than we know right now. 

•  However, India's creative brilliance has not been unaffected by these changes. 

There has been a potential spiritual revival, which has, among other things, generated a missionary feeling among Hindus for the first time in history: 

• There has been a continuous flow of Hindu knowledge, particularly Yoga and Vedanta, to the Euro-American nations since the imposing figure of Swami Vivekananda appeared at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893. 

•  We have never yet struck upon the idea that while we are conquering the Orient from outside, it may be fastening its grip on us from inside, as Jung noted with remarkable perceptiveness. 

Much more might be written about the modern resurgence of Hindu tradition and its influence on the West. 

•  The dates provided are variable, and the above effort at periodization is just an estimate. 

•  Until the nineteenth century, India's chronology is famously speculative. 

Hindu historiographers have a habit of mixing historical truth with mythology, symbolism, and ideology without regard for the accuracy of dates. 

• Hindu consciousness and culture have long been praised for their "timelessness" by Western academics. 

•  This belief, however, has proved to be a major blind spot, since it has prevented thorough examination of the historical material found in the Hindu texts, particularly the 6 Puranas. 

A helpful difference may be established between the fundamental orientations of asceticism (tapas), renunciation (samnyasa), and mysticism (yoga) in the widest sense of the word, in addition to the split into religio-spiritual traditions and historical eras.  These are common to all of India's religious and philosophical traditions. 

 

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