Hinduism And Hindu Theology - What Is Artha?

Artha is one of the four Purusharthas of Hinduism.

This is one of the four purusharthas, or life goals, in Indian philosophy, the others being kama (desire), dharma (religious obligation), and moksha (liberation) (final liberation of the soul). 

The Various Contextual Meanings of Artha 

In different situations, the term artha has varied shades of meaning, but they all revolve around the definitions "aim," "goal," or "end." 

The term may therefore apply to any human aim, but as one of these purusharthas, artha denotes wealth, power, and material success. 

• These are the tangible goods that enable one to achieve one's temporal objectives, and unless one obtains them in some form, hedonistic or simple worldly pleasure becomes a challenge. 

• Wealth and power have long been considered acceptable human goals in Hindu culture, but they must be guided by a dedication to dharma. 

• The pursuit of riches may be part of an integrated existence when it is guided by an overarching commitment to moral conduct. 

Without these guiding spiritual dedications, and personal commitments, a person's ambition for money and wealth, or pursuit of goals, or purpose and mission in life becomes an all-consuming and self-sustained fire of desire that eventually kills them and leads them to spiritual degeneration and decay.

In Indian philosophy, Artha is one of the four purposes of human existence. 

Depending on the context, the term artha literally means "meaning, sense, objective, purpose, or essence." 

In Hinduism's texts, Artha refers to a wider notion. 

• In Hinduism, artha (Sanskrit: "wealth" or "property") refers to the pursuit of riches or financial benefit, which is one of the four fundamental goals in life. 

• Material well-being is a primary requirement of man and is his legitimate pursuit as a householder, that is, during the second of the four life stages, with the exception of the extraordinary few who may continue straight to the ultimate goal of moksha, or spiritual escape from existence. 

Artha as the Pursuit Of Monetary Gains.

Furthermore, artha, as the pursuit of monetary gain, is inextricably linked to statecraft, which keeps the overall social order in place and avoids anarchy. 

However, since pursuing worldly gain in excess leads to undesired and deadly excesses, artha must always be governed by the higher goal of dharma, or righteousness. 

• Dharma (righteousness), kama (pleasure and emotional satisfaction), and moksha are the three purusharthas (life goals) in addition to artha (freedom from the life-death cycle). 

• While artha may seem to be a selfish pursuit, it is a legitimate goal on the route to moksha when practiced in moderation, since having the financial and material means to live comfortably is a fundamental requirement in daily life. 

• Food, housing, clothes, and enough material belongings to live a meaningful existence are all provided by Artha. 

• Poverty, on the other hand, may lead to chaos. 

As a result, the pursuit of material pleasures aids in the maintenance of social order. 

Excessive wealth-seeking, on the other hand, leads to greed and societal dysfunction. 

• As a result, dharma must keep artha in control. 

• The fourth and last objective, moksha, is the ultimate goal. 

• The other three goals encourage life happiness and balance until the person achieves this condition. 

What is an Artha example? 

Wealth, career, earning activities, financial stability, and economic success are all examples of artha in the context of a person. 

• In Hinduism, the appropriate pursuit of artha is seen as an essential goal of human existence. 

• At the federal level, artha encompasses social, legal, economic, and international issues. 

What is the significance of Artha? 

Artha: meaning "means of life," activities and resources that allow one to achieve a desired condition. 

• To build a life with financial and economic success, Artha combines riches, career, and activities. 

• In Hinduism, pursuing Artha is a major goal of human existence. 

What are Hinduism's four life goals? 

For Hindus, life is about achieving four goals known as Purusharthas. 

• Dharma, kama, artha, and moksha are the four elements that comprise the Purusharthas . 

• These give Hindus with possibilities to have a happy life by acting morally and ethically. 

According to Kautilya, what does Artha mean? 

The Arthashastra of Kautilya defines artha as riches or power, and dharma as political virtue, or ethical and moral concerns in statecraft, in this book.

You may also want to read more about Hinduism here.

Be sure to check out my writings on religion here.

Human Well-Being From A Hindu Perspective: Care, Healing, And Wellness

 

It is reasonable to conclude that religion and spirituality in general contribute to human life fulfillment and pleasure in all civilizations. 

Due to the increasing complexity of everyday life, providing care for persons' physical and mental needs has become a growing problem. 

Indeed, life has become a source of worry, bringing significant challenges to religious thought and spirituality. 

As a result, care and human well-being are prioritized in modern India, particularly among Hindu civilizations. 

Hinduism, the world's third biggest religion, is very important to the people of India. It is considered "a way of life" (Chaudhuri 2012: 28). 

As a result, it's critical to look at how Hindus see care, healing, and human well-being, as well as what their practice includes among their followers in India. 

The current research begins with an overview of Hinduism as India's major religion. 

It is descriptive and attempts to elucidate the notions of care, healing, and well-being within Hindu thinking's cultural and religious traditions. 

The relationship between Hindu thought and how it is operationalized in its rites of passage (also known as "Hindu sacraments"), "goals for meaningful human life," and "five great sacrifices" will be a particular emphasis. 

Finally, the article discusses care, healing, and well-being in the modern day, with a focus on renascent Hinduism and its ideas on gods and goddesses as its source. 

Ayurveda as a Hindu science of medicine for holistic well-being, yoga as a path for mental well-being, and asrama-dharma as care and well-being for the elderly within the domain of gem-transcendence will all be discussed to further investigate modern Hinduism's viewpoints. 

India's primary religion is Hinduism. 

Hinduism is the most widely practiced religion in India, the world's seventh biggest nation (3.3 million square kilometres). 

India, which is expected to have a population of 1.42 billion people by 2023, is noted for its religious variety and cultural diversity. 

Aside from Hinduism, India is home to Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and a number of other ancient religious traditions. 

In addition, India is home to a diverse range of faiths, including Semitic religions. 

According to the 2011 census, Hinduism is followed by 79.8% of the Indian population, 14.2% Islam, 2.3 percent Christianity, 1.72 percent Sikhism, 0.7 percent Buddhism, 0.37 percent Jainism, and 0.66 percent Zoroastrianism. 

Despite the diversity of religious connections among Indians, the Hindu religious heritage plays a critical part in the country's spiritual, cultural, and social makeup. 

In terms of Hinduism's texts, deities, and belief systems, the concept of 'unity amid variety' (Sarma 1996: 13-27) may be distinctively recognized. 

The word 'Hinduism' does not refer to a single, closed religion tradition, but rather to a wide range of faiths, beliefs, doctrines, rituals, and practices linked with a variety of gods, goddesses, and cults found on the Indian subcontinent. 

Although the name Hinduism refers to a specific religious tradition with a history that spans many centuries, its spiritual foundations date back almost four millennia. 

Hinduism is considered by its supporters to be a sanatana dharma, or "everlasting religion," since it is founded on the eternal truth enshrined in the Vedas (the primary Hindu scriptures). 

Hinduism, being one of the world's oldest alive religions, does not honor a single sage or prophet as its creator, nor does it claim a single central authority for its existence. 

It is, in reality, based on an open canon. 

It remains an all-encompassing, all-encompassing, and inevitably ever-evolving spiritual tradition in this way. 

According to Shashi Tharoor (2018: 39), "Hinduism is a characteristically Indian development, a type of 'banyan tree,' as a consequence of its openness and variety. 

Its branches spread far and wide, sinking back into the ground to take new root in the inviting soil." 

One of its defining characteristics is the domination of a type of 'religious awareness.' 

This centripetal perception leads to the domination of a very distinct religious point of view and spiritual sensitivity to all matters of life among Hindu believers (Griswold 1996: 24-26). 

As expressed in Hindu scriptures, traditional thought, and culture, this complete worldview incorporates a spiritual perspective of care, healing, and human well-being. 

Hindu themes of care, healing, and well-being are discussed in this paradigmatic context. 

The themes of caring, healing, and well-being are implicitly ingrained throughout Hindu thought. 

In Sanskrit (the Hindu tradition's holy language), the term 'care' has many distinct definitions: 

• Raksa Means to guard, look after, save, preserve, or keep away from. 

• Pala(-na) Means to keep an eye on, guard, defend, or govern. 

• Chinta = to consider a thought via contemplation and introspection,  (Williams 1994; 1976). 

Raksha Bandhan, a prominent Hindu event, is strongly linked to the pledge of care and the safety of the family. 

• The sisters tie the rakhi, a kind of amulet, around their brothers' wrists as part of the festival's ceremonial to protect them from negative influences and to pray for their long life and happiness. 

• The sisters are given a gift at this event. 

• The ceremony's origins may be traced back to a Hindu folklore in which Draupadi tore a piece of her saree and wrapped it to Krishna's wrist, injuring him accidently. 

• Its purpose was to halt or prevent bleeding. 

• As a result, a link was formed between them. 

• Krishna vowed to safeguard Draupadi in exchange. 

Furthermore, the Raksha Bandhan celebration serves as an annual ritual. 

It historically authorized the brothers to take duty for the care of their sisters in order to keep them from being harmed, and it signifies protection and caring among siblings. 

• Sama = balanced; when anything in its original healthy nature is injured, it should be balanced, according to Sanskrit. 

• Svastha is the Sanskrit word for "health" or "being in one's natural condition." • Santhi is a Sanskrit word that means "rest," "quiet," "peace," "tranquility," "bliss," and "comfort" (Williams 1994). 

• The word svastha in Ayurveda refers to a person's overall health. 
• It typically refers to a "state of being in which one's body, mind, spirit, and senses are all in happy harmony" (Yogapedia Dictionary 2020). 
• As a result, health is defined as the physical well-being of a person, as well as mental, emotional, spiritual, and energetic inclinations. 
• As a result, healing is defined as the comprehensive restoration of health. 
• Despite this holistic approach, doctors' cures for illnesses are different from the spiritual part of healing. 

• Svasti is a Sanskrit term that means 'well-being.' It might also mean 'benefit.' Well-being refers to a sense of fulfillment and happiness in life, as well as an inner sense of harmony with our surroundings. 

Meditation, according to Hindu belief, leads to an inner feeling of serenity and tranquility. 

• It promotes a sense of well-being that is rooted deep inside oneself (Lovato 2019). 

• Hindus are taught to consider well-being, a feeling of pleasure with life, as vital to a sense of purposefulness, rather than the pursuit of artificial kinds of enjoyment (Menon 2012: 2; 4). 

• Holi, a full-moon Hindu celebration in which married women celebrate their happiness and the well-being of all family members, is an example of this. 

Yoga is another aspect of the Hindu tradition's concept of well-being. 

• It is said to provide people with a feeling of well-being, encouraging a sense of being 'whole.'

 

Sources and practices of conceptualization in Hindu thought. 

The Hindu scriptures and Indian cultural traditions both include notions of care, healing, and well-being. 

Hinduism is blessed with various texts as one of the world's oldest existing faiths. 

The benefit is that they all have a canon that is open-ended. 

There are four Vedas, as well as Sutras, Epics, Codes of Law, and Sacred History, among other sources. 

Philosophical Manuals and Sectarian Scriptures are also included with the Vedas. 

In addition to many other literature that Hindu devotees religiously study, all of them are deemed to have either main or secondary scriptural value. 

Vedangas, or Sutra literature, is taken straight from the Vedas and contains many of Hinduism's theological principles. 

In Hindu religious thought, the concepts and practices of caring, healing, and well-being are implied in the Grhya and Dharma Sutras. 

The former is concerned with household rituals, whereas the latter is concerned with socioreligious rules. 

Many other Hindu beliefs and practices, such as samskaras, purushartha, paru;amahayajna, and varnaasramadharma, are intertwined with its different elements. 

 

Hindu rites of passage: the practice of samskaras. 

Meaningful life and dying via Hindu rites of passage: the practice of samskaras. 

The Hindu sacraments, or rites of passage, are known as samskaras (Pandey 2001; Antoine 1996c) and span one's whole life span as well as the world beyond (transcendent dimension), starting with prenatal rituals and ending with post-mortem existence. 

• According to ancient scholars, three key prenatal rituals lay the way for care to be offered to pregnant women and the unborn child in order to assure health and protection against evil. 

• Early childhood or infancy samskaras are for the child's intellectual well-being, longevity, safety, and even adornment. 

• With basic and secondary education, educational samskaras secure an individual's profession outside of the family, preparing them for active citizenship obligations. 

• The marriage (vivaha) ceremony is the most important sacrament, through which a person fulfills socio-religious and family duties. 

• The penultimate sacrament, the funeral ritual (antyeshthi), takes into account the needs of both the dead and the living. 

• This ceremony expresses 'sublime feelings' that make death pleasant for the one who dies, as well as for the society to accept death and dying as an unavoidable occurrence. 

A person's life is made up of a succession of events. 

• In this way, the sacraments offer people in society with the care and protection they need. 
• These sacraments are intended to mold one's personality and connect our humanity to religious significance. 
• As a result, the concept of life passages was born. 
• Their purpose is to aid in the expression of pleasure and grief. 
• The sacraments support an individual's well-being in this manner. 

Simultaneously, they contribute to an individual's growth as a "full-fledged social person" (Dandekar 1996: 142). 

As a result, the Samskaras provide a complete vision of what constitutes a healthy life and personal well-being in Hindu traditional culture. 

All of these rites of passage are described and formulated in the Grhya Sutras, which defines and formulates household or domestic rituals, which were historically performed at home and in which priests had a little part. 

The relevance of these family ceremonies is eroding as a result of modernization of schooling and changing societal attitudes. 

Even the practice of samskaras has become fragmented and has lost its uniting effect. 

However, some of the customs are still followed, such as the singing of Vedic hymns and the offering of ceremonial fire during official ceremonies, as well as at private occasions when no religious person is present (Gengnagel and Husken eds. 2005). 

In reality, only the most devout Hindu households still follow these samskaras to the letter. 

Fortunately, despite secularization, most Hindus in modern society are still eager to participate in a number of these samskaras, such as the naming ceremony, the first feeding of the infant, initiation into education, marriage, and burial customs. 

These rituals are often carried out with the assistance of a priest, albeit not always at the temple. 

Well-being in the context of the individual-society interaction: Promoting 'Human Life Goals' (Purushartha). 

 

 The four ideals of purushartha (literally: 'goal' or 'end' of man/human [Antoine 1996a: 155156]), dharma, artha, kama, and moksha form a four-fold network about what life is about and its relationship to the universal human desire for meaning and purpose. 

• Dharma as a life aim encourages people to be virtuous, righteous, and morally and ethically responsible in all aspects of life. 

• The quest of money and success is the theme of Artha. It is the source of human life and existence. 

• Kama is a Sanskrit word that means "pleasure" or "enjoyment of life." It denotes the method of procreation and, as a result, humanity's survival. Both artha and kama, or money and pleasure, must be consistent with dharma. 

• Moksha is the Hindu term for emancipation, which is the ultimate purpose of existence. 

A person who acquires money (artha) and enjoys and fulfills life's wants (kama) via virtuous and righteous ways (dharma) would, in theory, achieve nirvana (moksha). 

These four life objectives are traditionally taught at the student/learning stage of life (brahmachari) and implemented in the householder stage ( Grhastha )  Purushartha is made up of all of these life objectives. 

In this way, they establish a set of life objectives that must be met in order to live a meaningful life. 

Life would be blank and pointless without these objectives. 

As a result, the purushartha dharma defines an individual's well-being in society and fosters wholeness in the public arena of life, resulting in a healthy society. 

 

Affectionate treatment of family members, other people, and other living things: The Great Five Sacrifices Or Yajnas (Panchamahayajnas). 

Every day, a homeowner is obligated to do the five-fold mandatory sacrifices, or duties: 

(a) Brahma Yajna, homage to Brahman, is performed by reading scripture; 

(b) Pitr Yajna, homage to the ancestors, is performed by offering water; 

(c) Deva Yajna, homage to the gods, is performed by offering homa sacrifices; 

(d) Bhuta Yajna, homage to elements or other beings, is performed by feeding animals and birds; and 

(e) Manusya Yajna (Antoine 1996b: 203). 

Both Bhuta Yajna and Manu-D-'a Yajna are closely tied to an individual's obligation as a caretaker to fellow human beings, animals, and other species; failing to do so implies failing to do one's major daily required task, which may destroy the prospect of liberation, or moksha (the ultimate goal of life). 

Pitra Yajna, according to Wilson Paluri (2020), is the 'reverential connection' with parents and elders, which is particularly important for the 'well-being' of family life. 

In the Hindu family structure, caring for parents and the elderly is both a virtue and an obligation. 

In Hindu tradition, "may mother be god to you, may father be god to you..., may visitors be god to you"10 is the ultimate state of being. 

Bhuta Yajna, or the offering of food to all creatures, decreases egomaniacal tendencies in humans and cultivates the practice of giving one's assets for the benefit of all sentient beings in need (Dandekar 1996: 139). 

Hindu traditional societies reflect these mahayajnas. 

They place a premium on caring for parents and seniors, respecting visitors, offering hospitality to everyone, and defining the pursuit of human well-being. 

Troublesome Issues to Consider 

Without mentioning its limits, a discussion of care, healing, and well-being in Hindu thinking and traditional practices would be insufficient. 

The majority of traditional customs are geared at men and the upper caste. 

Many people from the disenfranchised, so-called lower caste populations, have been denied access to Vedic traditions because they had to settle for a 'lower religion.' Early Vedic religion is supposed to be simple yet deep, promoting society and gender equality. 

It has generated hierarchical structures and inequalities throughout its history in order to serve the entrenched interests of rich groups. 

The most exploited victims of such a discriminatory practice are women and members of indigenous groups (Tribals, adivasis, Dalits) (Devi 2000: 15). 

Although the dynamic position of people from disadvantaged groups and women in general can be traced throughout Hindu history, the society adopted hierarchical and patriarchal structures (Krishnan 2020a). 

Current Hindu cultures, on the other hand, are not static, but are subject to social development, which has an impact on the dynamic position of women and indigenous people in religion and society.

~ Kiran Atma

You may also want to read more about Gnani Yoga here.

You may also want to read more about Kundalini Yoga here.

You may also want to read more about Yoga here.

You may also want to read more about Yoga Asanas and Exercises here.

You may also want to read more about Hinduism here.

Be sure to check out my writings on religion here.

References And Further Reading.

Antoine, R. 1996a. "Hindu Ethics: 1. General Ethics." In Religious Hinduism, edited by R. DeSrnet and J. Neuner, pp. 149-158. Murnbai: St. Pauls. 

Antoine, R. 1996b. "Rituals and Worship". In Religious Hinduism, edited by R. DeSrnet and J. Neuner, pp. 200-209. Murnbai: St. Pauls. 

Antoine, R. 1996c. "The Hindu Saril.skaras." In Religious Hinduism, edited by R. DeSrnet and J. Neuner, pp. 210-219. Murnbai: St. Pauls. 

Arulsamy, S. 2000. Religion for a New Society. Delhi: ISPCK. 

Bowker, John. (ed.) 1997. The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 

Braam, Arjan W., et al. 2006. "Cosmic Transcendence and Framework of Meaning in Life: Patterns Among Older Adults in The Netherlands." The Journals of Gerontology- Series B 61 (3),pp. 121-128. DOl: 10.1093/geronb/61.3.Sl21. 

Capistrant, B.D., et al. 2015. "Culture and Caregiving for Older Adults in India: A Qualitative Study," The Gerontologist 5(2), p.ll2. DOl: 10.1093/geront/gnv504.06. 

Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 2012. Hinduism: A Religion to Live By [1st edition 1979]. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 

Dandekar, R.N. 1996. ''The Role of Man in Hinduism." In The Religion of the Hindus, edited by Kenneth M organ [first published 19 53], pp. 11 7-153. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. 

Dasgupta, Surendranath. 1975. A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. II [Cambridge Edition 1922], Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. 

Datta, Sukurnar. 2001. "Monasticisrn in India." In The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. II, pp.582-593. Calcutta: The Rarnakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. 

Devi, K.Urna. 2000. Women's Equality in India: A Myth or Reality? New Delhi: Discovering Publishing House. 

Gautamananda, Swami. 2019. "Holistic Health." In Healthy Mind, Healthy Body: New Thoughts on Health [first published 1997] Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math, pp. 1-8. 

Gengnagel, Jorg and Ute Hiisken (eds.) 2005. Words and Deeds: Hindu and Buddhist Rituals in 

SouthAsia. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. 

Griffith R. T. ( ed.) 1899. The Texts of the White Y ajurveda. https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/wyv/index.htrn (accessed 13 Sept 2020). 

Griswold, Harvey De Witt. 1996. Insights into Modern Hinduism. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. 

Hall, C. Margaret. 1985. "Religion and Aging." Journal of Religion and Health 24(1 ), pp. 70-78. 

Hinduscriptures. corn. 2021. "Hindu Samskaras." https://www.hinduscriptures.corn/vedic-culture/rituals/sixteen-sanskara/hindu-samskaras/11992/ (accessed 29 Sep 2021). 

Ketchell, A., L. Pyles, and E. Canda. 2013. World Religious Views of Health and Healing. http://spiritualdiversity.ku.edu/sites/spiritualitydiversity.drupal.ku.edulfiles/docs/Health/World%20Religious%20Views%20of"/o20Health%20and%20Healing.pdf (accessed 10 Nov 2020). 

Kimble, Melvin A., et al. (eds.) 1995. Aging, Spirituality and Religion: A Handbook. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. 

Krishnan, Giri. 2020a. "Discovering the Dynamic Status ofWomen in Hindu Tradition: Re-reading of the Narratives of Hindu Women towards Gender Justice." UBS Journal (Union Biblical Seminary, Pune, India) 14(1), pp. 53-70. 

Krishnan, Giri. 2020b. "Viinaprastha-Sannyiisa Schemes of Life as Gerotranscendence: An Appraisal of a Hindu Perspective of Ageing." In Ageing: Perspectival Explorations Towards Theo-Gerontology, edited by Songram Basurnatary, pp. 125-139. Chennai: Gurukul Publication. 

Lamb, Sarah. 2005. "Cultural and Moral Values Surrounding Care and (In)Dependence in Late Life: Reflections from India in an Era of Global Modernity." Care Management Journals 6(2), pp. 80-89. 

Lamb, Sarah. 2007. "Lives Outside the Family: Gender and the Rise of Elderly Residences in India." International Journal of Sociology of the Family 33(1), pp. 43-61. 

Lamb, Sarah. 2019. "Hinduism Teachings and Aging." In Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging, edited by D. Gu and M. Dupre. DO I: 1 0.1007/978-3-319-69892-2~144-1. 

Lovato, Chris. 2019. "Well-Being and Spirituality." In Healthy Mind, Healthy Body: New Thoughts on Health [first published 1997], pp. 147-151. Chennai: Sri Rarnakrishna Math. 

Menon, Usha. 2012. "Hinduism, Happiness and Wellbeing: A Case Study of Adulthood in an Oriya Hindu Temple Town." In Happiness Across Cultures: Views of Happiness and Quality of Life in Non-Western Cultures, edited by H. Selin and G. Davey, pp. 417-434. Dordrecht: Springer. Manuscript with differing pagination online at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279409932 (accessed 25 Sep 2020), quoted from this online source. 

Paluri, Wilson. 2020. "Familial and Community Care in Vrddhavastha: Socio-Religious Jarasastra from Classical Hinduism." In Ageing: P erspectival Explorations towards Theo-Gerontology, edited by S. Basurnatary, pp. 141-153. Chennai: Gurukul Publication. 

Pandey, R.B. 2001. "The Hindu Sacraments (Sarhskaras)." In The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. II, edited by S. Radhakrishnan [2nd edition 1962], pp. 390-413. Calcutta: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. 

Pandya, Samta P. 2016. "Aging Spiritually: Pitamaha Sadans in India." Cogent Social Sciences 2(1 ). DO I: 10.1080/23311886.2016.1219212. 

Pathshala. 2020. Overview of Hindu Healing Traditions. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000825CR/POO1532/MO18441/ET/1483520083Text.pdf (accessed 10 Nov 2020). 

Premsagar, P. Victor. 1994. "Vanaprasthasrama Dharrna: A Programme of Renewal and Religion as Realisation for Retired People." Bangalore Theological Forum 26(3&4), pp. 15-24. 

Radhakrishnan, S. 2009. The Hindu View of Life [1st edition 1927]. Noida: Harper Collins Publishers. 

Rajan, K. V. Soundara. 2001. Concise Classified Dictionary of Hinduism, Vol. I. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. 

Roy, Mira. 1986. "Ayurveda." In The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. VI: Science and Technology, edited by P. Ray and S.N. Sen, pp. 152-176. Calcutta: Rarnakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. 

Sarrna, D. S. 1966. Renascent Hinduism. Murnbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 

Sarrna, D.S. 1996. "The Nature and History of Hinduism." In The Religion of the Hindus, edited by Kenneth Morgan [first published 1953], pp. 3-47. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 

Sarrna, D.S. 2000. Hinduism Through the Ages [1st edition 1956]. Murnbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 

Sharma, Arvind. 2002. The Hindu Tradition: Religious Beliefs and Healthcare Decisions. Illinois: The Park Ridge Center. 

Sri Sathya 2021. "Sri Sathya Sai International Organization." https://www.sathyasai.org 

Tharoor, Shashi. 2018. Why I am a Hindu. New Delhi: Aleph Book Company. 

Tilak, Shrinivas. 1989. Religion and Aging in the Indian Tradition. Albany: State University of New York Press. 

Tiwari, S.C., and N.M. Pandey. 2013. "The Indian Concepts of Lifestyle and Mental Health in Old Age." Indian Journal of Psychiatry (January), pp. 288-292. 

Valiathan, M.S. 2015. "Healing in the Ramakrishna Tradition." In Total Human Development in the Light ofRamakrishna-Vivekananda Tradition, pp. 109-116. Kolkata: Ramakrishna Institute of Culture. 

Williams, Monier. 1976. A Dictionary English and Sanskrit [4th Indian edition 1899]. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 

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WorldBookEncyclopedia. 1981. Vol. 21. Chicago: World Book, Inc. 

Yogapedia Dictionary. 2020. "Svastha." https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/11783/svastha-ayurveda (accessed 10 Nov 2020). 

HINDU PHILOSOPHY AND YOGA

Hinduism - A Philosophy, Religion, Way Of Life, And Identity

The difference between philosophy and religion in Hinduism is not as obvious as it is in modern Western culture. 

• The terms "philosophy" and "religion" have no clear counterparts in Sanskrit, Hinduism's holy language. 

• Anvikshiki-vidya is the closest synonym for "philosophy" ("science of examination"). 

• Only the Nyaya school of philosophy, which deals with logic and dialectics, uses the similar word tarka-shastra ("discipline of reasoning"). 

• To describe what we understand by "philosophical inquiry," modern pundits use the phrase tattva-vidya-shastra ("discipline of knowing reality"). 

Sanatana-dharma The Sanskrit word dharma, which meaning "jaw" or "standard," captures the idea of "religion" (with many other connotations). 

• Sanatana-dharma ("eternal law") is a Hindu term that relates to the Western concept of philosophia perennis. 

• For Hindus, philosophy is more than just abstract knowledge; it is a metaphysics with moral consequences. 

• To put it another way, whatever one's theoretical conclusions about reality are, they must be put into practice in everyday life. 

• As a result, philosophy is usually viewed as a way of life rather than a meaningless exercise in logical thought. 

Furthermore, Hindu philosophy (and Indian philosophy in general) includes a spiritual component. 

• All philosophical systems accept the presence of a transcendental Reality and believe that a person's spiritual well-being is based on how he or she interacts with that Reality, with the exception of the materialist school known as Lokayata or Carvaka. 

• As a result, Hindu philosophy is closer to the spirit of ancient Greek philosophia ("love of knowledge") than to the modern academic field of conceptual analysis, which goes by the name of philosophy but isn't especially concerned with life-enhancing insight. 

• Ontology (which deals with the categories of existence), epistemology (which is concerned with the knowledge processes by which we come to know what there is "in reality"), and logic (which defines the rules of rational thought) are all areas of rational inquiry that have preoccupied Western philosophers since the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (which seeks to understand beauty). 

Hindu philosophy, like Christian philosophy, is deeply concerned with humanity's ultimate spiritual destiny. 

• As a result, it is often referred to as atma-vidya ("science of the Self") or adhyatmika-vidya ("spiritual science"). 

• Though sophisticated self-critical systems seem to be the result of the period following the birth of Buddhism in the sixth century B.C.E., the ancient Rig Veda contains the first philosophical musings or intuitions of Hinduism. 

Six systems are traditionally differentiated, which are referred to as "viewpoints" or "visions" (darshana, from the verbal root drish "to see"). 

• This statement alludes to two important aspects of Hindu philosophy: Each system is the result of visionary-intuitive processes as well as logical thought, and each system is a unique viewpoint from which the same reality is seen, implying a stance of tolerance (at least in theory, if not in practice). 

• And that same Truth is what has been passed down by word of mouth (and esoteric initiation) as the ultimate or transcendental Reality, whether it is referred to as God (ish, isha, Ishvara, all meaning "ruler"), the Self (atman, purusha), or the Absolute (brahman). 

The Vedic revelation (shruti), especially the Rig-Veda, is a major element of Hindu philosophy, and tradition refers to it. 

• The Hindu philosophers had to defer to, or at least pay lip service to, the ancient Vedic legacy in order to establish their separate schools inside the orthodox fold. 

• Purva-Mimamsa (which proposes a philosophy of sacrificial ritualism), Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta (which is the nondualist metaphysics espoused especially in the Upanishads), Samkhya (whose main contribution concerns the categories of sacrificial ritualism), Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta (which is the nondualist metaphysics espoused especially in the Upani (which is primarily a theory of logic and argument). 

• I'll provide a short overview of each school and its connection to the Yoga heritage. 

Purva-Mimarnsa. 

The Purva-Mimamsa ("Earlier Inquiry") school is so named because it analyzes the "earlier" two parts of the Vedic revelation: the early Vedic hymnodies and the Brahmana texts that explain and deepen their sacrifice rites. 

• It is opposed to the Uttara Mimamsa ("Later Inquiry"), which is represented by the Upanishads' nondualist doctrines. 

• The Mimamsa-Sutra of Jaimini gave the Purva-Mimamsa school its unique shape (c.200300 B .C.E.). 

• In line with Vedic ritualism, it expounds the art and science of moral conduct. 

• Its main point is the idea of dharma, or virtue, as it relates to an individual's religious or spiritual destiny. 

The ethical authorities (dharma-shastra) are in charge of defining and explaining the secular applications of dharma. 

• There have been many well-known Jaiminis, and the author of the Sutra must be differentiated from the sage who was a Vyasa student during the Bharata war. 

• Mimamsa philosophers, or mimamsakas, see ethical conduct as an unseen, exceptional power that shapes the world's appearance: 

• Action affects the quality of human life in both this incarnation and future incarnations since humans are inherently active. 

Bad acts (activities that violate the Vedic moral code, which is believed to reflect the global order itself) result in negative life circumstances, while good actions (actions that follow the Vedic moral code) result in favorable life circumstances. 

• The goal of leading a morally sound life is to enhance one's quality of life in the present, the afterlife, and future incarnations. 

• Because the person has free will, he or she may utilize good acts to accrue positive consequences and even cancel out bad ones. 

• The fact that the fundamental Self is transcendental and everlasting ensures free choice. 

• Unlike Vedanta, the Mimamsa tradition believes in many fundamental selves (atman). 

• These are considered inherently unconscious and only become aware in the presence of a body-mind. 

For the Mimamsa philosophers, awareness is always I-consciousness (aham-dhi). 

• Although some members of this school began to believe in a Creator God in the fourteenth century, there is no God above and beyond those numerous everlasting and omnipresent Selves. 

• Because the Self is said to lack both awareness and joy, the early mimamsakas naturally considered the liberation goal sought by other schools to be unappealing. 

• The eighth-century philosopher Kumarila Bhatta and his disciple Prabhakara were opposed to this viewpoint. 

• They both taught that abstaining from forbidden and simply optional acts, as well as diligent execution of prescribed actions, inevitably result in the separation of the Self from the bodymind—that is, freedom. 

• They saw the Self as awareness, but they didn't completely grasp the metaphysical consequences of their viewpoint. 

Yoga methods have no place in Mimamsa, which extols the concept of obligation for the sake of duty. 

• "As a philosophical perspective of the world, it is startlingly inadequate," said Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, a former president of India and a renowned scholar, of this school of thought. 

• Nothing in such a religion can "touch the heart and make it shine." However, since Poorva-Mimamsa was one of the cultural influences faced by the Yoga tradition, it must be included here. 

• Though Poorva-Mimarnsa was important in the development of logic and dialectics, this school of thinking would scarcely be considered philosophical by Western standards. 

Apart from Jaimini, Kumarila, and Prabhakara, Mandana Mishra (ninth century c.E.) is the most notable thinker of this school, which has a fairly extensive literature. 

• He subsequently converted to Shankara's Advaita Vedanta school and took the name Sureshvara. 

• In the fourteenth-century Shankara-Dig-Vijaya, a fictitious biography of Shankara, the tale of the electrifying meeting between Shankara and Mandana Mishra is recounted. 

According to tradition, the youthful Shankara, who had taken up renunciation, came to Mandana Mishra's magnificent home just as the renowned scholar of Vedic ritualism was about to begin one of his rituals. 

• Shankara, who lacked the customary hair tuft and the holy thread across his breast, irritated him. 

• Mandana Mishra, quite proud of his knowledge, challenged the guest to a discussion after a torrent of nasty comments, which Shankara accepted quietly and not without pleasure. 

• They decided, as was usual at the time, that whomever lost the argument would adopt the winner's lifestyle.

• Their intellect and wit duel attracted huge groups of academics and lasted many days. 

Ubhaya Bharati, Mandana Mishra's wife (who was really Sarasvati, the Goddess of Learning in disguise), was named umpire. 

• She quickly proclaimed her husband's loss, but quickly countered that Shankara had only beaten half of the battle; for his victory to be complete, he needed to vanquish her as well. 

• She slyly pushed the young renouncer to a sexuality debate. 

• Shankara requested an adjournment without losing his cool, so that he might familiarize himself with this field of expertise. 

• Shankara took advantage of the fact that the monarch of a neighboring country had recently died and utilized his yogic abilities to enter the body and reanimate it. 

• He returned to the palace to the joyful exclamations of the king's family. 

Shankara enjoyed and explored for a while the pleasures of sexual love among the deceased king's wives and courtesans in the spirit of Tantra. 

• According to tradition, he became so engrossed in his new life that his followers had to sneak into the palace to remind him of his previous existence as a renouncer. 

• Shankara regained his real identity and skillfully dropped the king's corpse before returning to his argument with Mandana Mishra's wife. 

• Of course, he triumphed. Mandana Mishra said that he was a Shankara student, prompting his wife, Ubhaya Bharat!, to disclose her real identity. 

• Shankara's win is often seen as a triumph of his better nondualist metaphysics against Purva-less Mimamsa's complex philosophy. 

• Although this is true, it was mainly a victory of yogic experientialism over intellectualism. 

Uttara-Mimamsa 

The many-branched school of Uttara-Mimamsa ("Later Inquiry"), also known as Vedanta ("Veda's End"), takes its name from the fact that it arose from the study of the "later" two portions of Vedic revelation: the Aranyakas (forest treatises composed by hermits) and the Upanishads (esoteric gnostic scriptures composed by sages). 

• Both the Aranyakas and the Upanishads teach the absorption of archaic rites via meditation, which is a metaphoric reworking of the old Vedic legacy. 

• The Upanishadic doctrines, in particular, gave birth to the Vedanta tradition's whole consciousness technology. 

• The Upanishads (of which there are over two hundred books), the Bhagavad-Gita (which is accorded the holy rank of an Upanishad and may date from c. 500-600 B.C.E. ), and the Vedanta Brahma-Sutra of Badarayana (c. 200 C.E.) make up the Uttara-Mimamsa school's (Vedanta) literature. 

Vedanta is the pinnacle of metaphysics. 

Its many sub-schools all teach one form or another of nondualism, in which Reality is seen as a one, homogenous totality. 

Sureshvara (the former Mandana Mishra) articulates the basic concept of Vedantic nondualism in the following stanzas from the Naishkarmya-Siddhi ("Perfection of Action-Transcendence"): 

• The failure to see the single Selfhood [of all things] is [spiritual] ignorance (avidya). 

• The experience of one's own self is the foundation of [such ignorance]. 

• It is the beginning of the world's transformation. 

The emancipation (mukti) of the ego is the elimination of that [spiritual ignorance].

• The illusion of [there being a separate] self is shattered by the fire of correct knowledge (jnana) originating from magnificent Vedic words. 

• Because action is not incompatible with ignorance, it does not [eliminate it]. 

• Action does not eliminate illusion since it originates from ignorance. 

• Because it is the polar opposite of ignorance, right understanding [alone] can eliminate it, just as the sun is the polar opposite of darkness. 

One gets scared and flees after mistaking a tree stump for a thief. 

• Similarly, a misguided individual superimposes the Self on the buddhi [i.e., the higher intellect] and other [aspects of human identity], and then acts [on the basis of that erroneous belief]. 

• Advaita Vedanta turned the previous Vedic ritualism on its head. 

• It is a gospel of gnosis, which is the liberating perception of the transcendental Reality, rather than cerebral or factual knowledge. 

• Shankara (c. 788-820 C.E.) and Ramanuja (c. 788-820 C.E.) were the two greatest exponents of Vedanta. 

• The former was successful in building a cohesive philosophical framework out of Upanishadic ideas, and is mainly responsible for Hinduism's survival and Buddhism's expulsion from India. 

Ramanuja, on the other hand, came to the Advaita Vedanta tradition's rescue when it was on the verge of becoming dry scholasticism. 

• His concept of the Divine as encompassing rather than transcending all characteristics aided the public push for a more devotional Hindu faith. 

• Many other Vedanta gurus, like Shankara and Ramanuja, have significant ties to the Yoga tradition. 

• Samkhya has moved toward intellectualism in later times as a result of its focus on discriminative knowledge rather than meditation, while Yoga has always been vulnerable to straying into simple magical psychotechnology. 

• The Samkhya philosophy has been the most dominant school of thinking within Hinduism, second only to Vedanta, and Shankara saw it as his primary foe. 

• The Sage Kapila, who is attributed with authorship of the Samkhya-Sutra, is believed to have established Samkhya. 

• Despite the fact that a teacher with that name existed during the Vedic Era, the Samkhya-Sutra seems to have been written according to certain 

Samkhya

The Samkhya ("Enumeration") tradition, which includes a wide range of schools, is mainly concerned with enumerating and explaining the major kinds of existence. 

In Western philosophy, this method is known as "ontology," or "science of being." 

• Samkhya and Yog are closely related in their metaphysical concepts, and they originally constituted an unified pre-classical school. 

• However, while Sankhya's disciples utilize discernment (viveka) and renunciation as their primary methods of salvation, yogins primarily use a combination of meditation and renunciation. 

• Sankhya is often mistakenly described as the theoretical component of Yoga practice. 

• As late as the fourteenth or fifteenth century C.E., each traditions had their own unique ideas and practical scholars. 

The Samkhya alluded to in the six darshanas is the school of ishvara Krishna (c. 350 C.E. ), creator of the SamkhyaKarika. 

• Ishvara Krishna taught that Reality is multiple, not single, in contrast to Vedanta and the older Samkhya schools described in the Mahabharata epic. 

• On one hand, there are numerous changeable and unconscious forms of Nature (prakriti), and on the other, there are countless transcendental Selves (purusha), which are pure Consciousness, omnipresent, and everlasting. 

• When examined more carefully, plurality seems to be irrational. 

• If innumerable Selves are all omnipresent, they must also be endlessly intersecting one another, making them logically identical. 

While Shankara's nondualism is the most academically beautiful, Ramanuja's qualified nondualism may satisfy both reason and intuition the best. 

• Ishvara Krishna went on to say that Nature (prakriti) is a huge composite or multidimensional structure produced by the interaction of three main forces: the dynamic characteristics, the material qualities, and the spiritual qualities (guna). 

• The term guna literally means "strand," yet it has a lot of other meanings. 

• The word signifies the irreducible ultimate "reals" of the universe in Yoga and Samkhya metaphysics. 

The three kinds of gunas are believed to mirror the energy quanta of modern physics. 

• Sattva, rajas, and tamas are the three gunas. 

• They are at the root of all physical and psychological processes. 

• Their distinct characteristics are described as follows in the Samkhya-Karika: The [three kinds of] gunas are of the natures of joy, joylessness, and dejection, and have the functions of enlightening, activating, and limiting, respectively. 

• They outnumber each other, and their actions are interconnected, productive, and cooperative. 

• Sattva is said to be uplifting and enlightening. 

• Rajas is energizing and dynamic. 

• Tamas is passive and oblivious. 

Like a lamp [made up of many components that together create the single phenomenon of light], the action [of the gunas] is purposeful. 

• Just as atoms are matter-energy, the gunas are Nature. 

• They are collectively responsible for the vast diversity of natural forms that exist on all levels of existence, with the exception of the transcendental Selves, who are pure Consciousness. 

• We can best explain the gunas by the general idea of two opposites and the middle term between them, or as Hegel's thesis, antithesis and synthesis, which are manifested in nature by light, darkness, and mist; in morals by good, bad, and indifferent, with many applications and modifications, according to German Sanskritist Max Muller. 

• The gunas are in a condition of equilibrium in the transcendental dimension of Nature, known as prakriti-pradhdna ("Nature's basis"), according to the Samkhya-Karika. 

Mahat, which literally means "great one" or "great principle," is the first product or evolute to emerge in the process of development from this transcendental matrix to the diversity of space-time forms. 

• Because of its brightness and intelligence, it is also called as buddhi ("intuition" or "cognition"), which means "greater knowledge."

• But, in fact, mahat (like other elements of Nature) is completely unconscious, and it simply symbolizes a highly refined form of matter-energy. 

Its "light" of intellect is derived from transcendental Self-Consciousness. 

• The principle of individuation, ahamkara ("I-maker"), arises from the mahat, or buddhi, and ushers in the difference between subject and object. 

• The lower mind (manas), the five cognitive senses (sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing), and the five conative senses all emerge as a result of this existential category (speech, prehension, movement, excretion, and reproduction). 

• The ahamkara principle is also responsible for the five subtle essences (tanmatra) that underpin sensory capabilities. 

• The five gross material elements (bhuta), namely earth, water, fire, air, and ether, are produced by them in tum. 

• As a result, Classical Samkhya acknowledges twenty-four different types of material existence. 

There are innumerable transcendental Self-monads outside the guna triad and its products, which are unaffected by Nature's ramifications. 

• The closeness of the transcendental Selves (purusha) to the transcendental matrix of Nature triggers the whole evolutionary process. 

• Furthermore, the procedure is for the release of those Selves who, for some inexplicable and erroneous reason, identify themselves with a specific body-mind rather than their inherent state of pure Consciousness. 

• The Samkhya tradition's psychocosmological evolutionism is intended to help people transcend the world rather than understand it. 

• It is a practical framework for individuals who seek Self-realization and come across many levels or types of existence while practicing meditation. 

Vaisheshika

The Vaisheshika ("Distinctionism") school of thought is concerned with the distinctions (vishesha) that exist between things. 

Liberation is achieved via a comprehensive knowledge of the six fundamental types of existence, according to the teachings:

l. The ninefold substance (dravya): earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, thought (manas), and Self (atman)

2. quality (guna), which is divided into twenty-three categories, including color, sensory impressions, magnitude, and so forth. 

3. take action (karma)

4. universality (samanya or jati)

5. the specific (vishesha) Yoga particularly refers to the school of Patanjali, the author of the Yoga-Sutra, among the six schools of Hindu philosophy. 

• This school, also known as Classical Yoga, is regarded a relative of ishvara Krishna's Samkhya school.  

• Both are dualist ideologies that teach that the transcendental Selves (purusha) are fundamentally different from Nature (prakriti) and that the former is eternally unchanging, while the latter is always changing and therefore unsuitable for long-term pleasure. 

6. inherence (samavaya), which refers to the logical connection that must exist between wholes and pieces, or substances and their characteristics, and so on. 

Kanada, the author of the Vaisheshika-Sutra, who flourished about 500 or 600 B.C.E., established the Vaisheshika school. 

• Kanada seems to be a nickname, literally meaning "particle eater." 

• Although some Sanskrit sources say that the term immortalizes the fact that this great ascetic lived on grain particles (kana), it is likely that it alludes to the kind of philosophy he developed. 

• Both readings may be accurate. Kanada's school of thinking has an enigmatic beginning. 

Some academics believe it is a descendant of the earlier Mimamsa school, while others view it as a continuation of the materialist tradition, and yet others believe it has its origins in a schismatic branch of Jainism. 

• The Vaisheshika school is similar to the Nyaya system, with which it is usually associated, in terms of general direction and metaphysics. 

• Both of these systems are the closest to what we think of as philosophy in the West. 

• They contributed to Indian thinking for a long time, but neither school has remained dominant. 

• The Vaisheshika school is almost extinct, while the Nyaya school has just a few adherents, most of whom live in Bengal. 

Nyaya

The Nyaya ("Rule") school of thought was founded by Akshapada Gautama (c.500 B.C.E. ), who lived during a period of intense debate between Vedic ritualism and such heterodox developments as Buddhism and Jainism—an era in which critical thinking and debating were at an all-time high, similar to that of Greece. 

One of the first efforts to establish sound logic and rhetorical principles was his. 

• Gautama's moniker, Akshapada, suggests that he had a tendency of gazing down at his feet (perhaps while being immersed in thought or in order to purify the ground while walking). 

• He is credited with writing the Nyaya-Sutra, which has been the subject of many comments. 

• Vatsyayana Pakshilasvamin's commentary (c. 400 C.E.) is the earliest surviving commentary, written at a period when Buddhism was still dominant in India. 

Bharadvaja's or Uddyotakara's Nyaya-Varttika is another excellent commentary, with a good subcommentary by Vacaspati Mishra, who also wrote on Yoga. 

• Around 1200 C.E., Nyaya began flowering, marking the start of the so-called Nava-Nyaya era (or "New Nyaya"). 

• In order to live properly and pursue meaningful objectives, Akshapada Gautama began with the realization that we must first define what constitutes right knowledge. 

• He developed sixteen categories considered essential for anybody wanting to discover the truth, in keeping with the Indic flare for categorization. 

• These topics include the acquisition of genuine knowledge (pramana), the nature of doubt, and the distinction between discussion and simple bickering. 

The Nyaya school's metaphysics is of particular importance. 

• There are several transcendental Subjects, or Selves, according to Nyaya's disciples (atman). 

• The ultimate actor underlying the human mind is each infinite Self, and each Self enjoys and suffers the consequences of its acts in the limited universe. 

• God is seen as a unique atman in Classical Yoga, and he is the only one who is aware. 

The Nyaya thinkers advocated the pursuit of freedom (apavarga) as the greatest aim in life, despite the fact that the human Selves are all regarded unconscious, like in the Mimamsa school. 

• Of course, their opponents did not miss an opportunity to point out the impossibility of a freedom that would result in a rocklike, insentient life. 

• The fact that Nyaya followers sought spiritual shelter in Shaivism's religious doctrines demonstrates how little they believed in their own metaphysics. 

• Between Nyaya and Yoga, there are many places of interaction. 

• The NyayaSutra describes yoga as a state in which the mind is in touch with the Self alone, resulting in mental balance and a lack of sensitivity to physical discomfort. 

Vatsyayana Pakshilasvamin said that yogins may see distant and even future occurrences while addressing different kinds of perception, a talent that can be developed by consistent practice of meditative focus. 

• The word apavarga refers to liberation, and it is also used in the Yoga-Sutra (2. 1 8) to contrast it with the concept of world experience (bhoga). 

• Another interesting similarity is that both Nyaya and Classical Yoga follow the sphota theory. 

• The everlasting connection between a word and its sound is referred to by this phrase. 

The notion is that the letters y, o, g, and a, or even the whole term yoga, cannot adequately express our understanding of the phenomenon known as "Yoga." 

• Over and above these letters or sounds, there is an everlasting idea, the essence of a thing, which "bursts out" (sphuta) or exposes itself spontaneously in our mind upon hearing a sequence of sounds, leading to understanding of the object so indicated. 

• A last point of connection is that a Nyaya follower is also known as yauga, which means "one who does Yoga." It's unclear what this designation conceals. 

Hindu philosophy is divided into six schools, which is rather arbitrary. 

• Many other schools, particularly those connected with sectarian movements, have played an important role in the development of Indian philosophy at one point or another. 

• It's important to remember that Yoga impacted most of these methods and traditions, but it did so more as a loose collection of ideas, beliefs, and practices than as Patanjali's philosophical framework (darshana).

 

You may also want to read more about Kundalini Yoga here.

You may also want to read more about Yoga here.

You may also want to read more about Yoga Asanas and Exercises here.

You may also want to read more about Hinduism here.

Be sure to check out my writings on religion here.